Innehållsförteckning
Innehållsförteckning 1
Inledning 2
Vad är kärnkraft? 3
Fission 3
Fusion 4
Lite historik om kärnkraften 5
Kärnkraftverk 6
Hur ett kärnkraftverk fungerar 6
Olika typer av kärnreaktorer 6
Bridreaktor 8
Intervju med Sten-Ove Beck 9
Kärnavfallet 10
Radioaktivitet 11
Folkomröstningen 1980 12
Kärnvapen och atombomber 13
Ordförklaringar 14
Källförteckning 16
Inledning
Jag har valt att skriva om kärnkraft för att det är ett ämne som rör oss alla, och dessutom är spännande. I Sverige står kärnkraften för en stor del av energiförsörjningen, men vad är kärnkraft? Är det farligt? Finns det något bättre än kärnkraften? Vad är kärnvapen? Det är flera frågor som säkert många har frågat sig själv, men egentligen aldrig fått något riktigt svar på. Dessa frågor skall jag försöka svara på i detta arbete, med hjälp av information från böcker, tidningsartiklar och material från kärnkraft-verket Ringhals. Jag hoppas att detta arbete skall hjälpa dig att besvara några av de frågor som du kanske ställt dig, eller kanske hjälpa dig till ett ställningstagande för eller emot kärnkraft i Sverige. Jag har tänkt skriva om kärnkraft i både civilt syfte (kärnkraftverk) och i militärt syfte (Atom-bomber och kärnvapen) och lite om folkomröstningen om kärnkraften i Sverige 1980.
Vad är kärnkraft?
Kärnkraft kallas även ofta för atomenergi eller kärnenergi, vilket är exakt samma sak. Atomenergi är en omvandling av materia till energi och kan genomföras genom två olika metoder, fission och fusion. Fusion är en sammanslagning av lätta atomkärnor till tunga atomkärnor, och fission är klyvning av tunga atomkärnor. I båda fallen frigörs det energi som tas till vara.
Fission
Fission är den metod som dagens kärnkraftverk använder sig av. I en fissionsreaktion använder man grundämnet uran. Det finns tre olika sorters uranatomer, som skiljer sig ifrån varandra i fråga om antal partiklar i atomkärnan. Sådana atomer brukar kallas isotoper. Den mest sällsynta uran-isotopen består av 234 partiklar, och kallas därför URAN 234. Den vanligaste uranistopen har 238 partiklar och kallas därför URAN 238. Den tredje har 235 partiklar, och är det viktigaste bränsle-källan till kärnkraft. Om man sammanför ett tillräckligt stort antal av dessa atomer så uppnår man den "kritiska massan", då det av sig själv utlöser en kärnreaktion, fission.
Fission (kärnklyvning) är den metod som våra kärnkraftverk använder sig av. Det bygger i stort på att uranatomskärnor träffas av fria neutroner och delas. När kärnan träffas av den fria neutronen blir det av uran-kärnan två andra kärnor och några fria neutroner. De två atomkärnor som bildas brukar kallas för klyvningsprodukter, och är inte uran utan andra radioaktiva ämnen. Sammtidigt frigörs det en massa energi. (Se bild nedan.)
Fusion
Kärnkraften idag använder som sagt en fissionsreaktion som kraftkälla, vilket innebär klyvning av tunga atomkärnor till lättare atomkärnor. Men man kan även utvinna energi genom att slå ihop lätta atomkärnor med varandra så det blir tyngre atomkärnor. Det kallas för fusion. Solen och stjärnorna har utnyttjat denna metod i miljarder år, men här på jorden har vi bara lyckats att använda den i så kallade vätebomber, som är den starkaste bomben på jorden. Skulle vi däremot lyckas med att använda fusion i fredliga ändamål skulle vi ha energi i flera århundraden framåt.
I fusionsprocessen spelar deuterium och tritium den viktigaste rollen. Även de är så kallade isotoper och består bara av en proton och en respektive två neutroner i atomkärnan vardera. Om man skulle kunna utnyttja det deuterium som finns i en kubikmeter havsvatten till fusion skulle det ge lika mycket energi som 200 ton olja. Till skillnad från fissionsprocessen avger fusion relativt ofarliga ämnen. För att få en fusionsreaktion krävs en temperatur på 100 miljoner grader. Det är unge-fär sex till sju gånger varmare än i solens inre, att det däremot kan ske inne i solen beror på den otroligt höga gravitationen. Vid denna höga temperatur bastår deuterium- och tritiumatomerna av en "gröt" av partiklar i atomen. Detta kallas plasma. Om dessa två kolliderar i plasma slås de ihop och bildar en tyngre atomkärna (Helium) och en fri neutron, eftersom deuterium- och tritiumatomerna tillsammans har en neutron för mycket än i en heliumkärna. Den "extra" neutronen frigörs tillsammans med en massa energi. Man har gjort experiment med fusionskraft i USA, Sovjet, Europa och Japan men hittills har det krävt mer energi än fusionskraften ger.
Lite historik om kärnkraften
Ordet "atom" betyder på grekiska odelbar. Man trodde först alltså att atomerna var odelbara. Senare kom man på att elektronerna kunde fri-göras, men atomkärnan var odelbar. Så småningom upptäckte man att även atomkärnan kunde delas, och att den bestod av mindre partiklar (protoner och neutroner) som hölls samman av starka krafter. Albert Einstein kom 1905 på en formel för att beräkna den energi som kan fri-göras vid splittring av atomkärnan.
Under andra världskriget sades det i USA att Hitler höll på att utveckla en atombomb. Därför var USA mycket angelägna om att forska fram en atombomb innan Hitler lyckades. USA lyckades att göra en atombomb, och den 6 augusti 1945 klockan 08:15 släppte ameri-kanarna sin atombomb över stade Hiroshima i Japan. 80000-90000 människor dog direkt, men många fler har dött efter det av den farliga strålningen. 3 dagar senare fällde amerikanarna sin andra atombomb, nu över staden Nagasaki i Japan. En del påstår att spräng-ningen i Nagasaki skedde för att amerikanarna ville "testa" sin plutoniumbomb.
Man förstod snart att atomenergins väldiga krafter kunde användas i fredliga ändamål. Många länder försökte utveckla ett kärn-kraftverk, och 1953 togs den första reaktorn i bruk i Storbritanien. Den första amerikanska reaktorn stog klar först några år senare. Sverige ville inte vara sämre och bildade därför bolaget AB Atomenergi 1947, som skulle driva forskning och utveckling av kärnkraften i civila ändamål. 1954 byggdes det en forskningsreaktor vid Tekniska Högskolan i Stockholm, men först 1972 togs den första reaktorn i drift, Oskarshamn I. Nu har vi fyra stycken kärnkraftverk i drift i Sverige: Oskarshamn, Barsebäck, Forsmark och Ringhals. I en statlig utredning om kärnkraften i Sverige från 50-talet kan man läsa följande:
"De radioaktiva klyvningsprodukterna betraktas idag som ett besvärligt avfallsproblem. De utgör emellertid samtidigt en ny strålningskälla av en styrka men ej haft tillgång till, och lovande arbeten är igång att finna användning för dem, t ex för konservering av livsmedel och för genom-förande av kemiska processer."
Detta kan ha lett till att många riksdagsmän trott att vi skulle kunna använda hela eller stora delar av avfallet. 1980 hade Sverige en folk-omröstning om kärnkraften i Sverige, läs mer om den senare i arbetet.
Kärnkraftverk
Hur ett kärnkraftverk fungerar
Ett kärnkraftsverks principer bygger på en fissionsreaktion. När uran-atomer klyvs slungas neutronerna iväg i en väldigt hög fart. I kärnkraft-verket bromsas neutronerna av en så kallad moderator som kan vara grafit, tungt vatten eller vanligt vatten, för att sedan klyva andra atomkärnor. Den värmeenergi som då bildas används för att värma upp vatten till ånga, denna ånga driver en turbin som får en generator att alstra elström. Denna process är lite olik för olika typer av reaktorer. Bränslet till kärnkraftverken finns i så kallade bränslepatroner, som vanligtvis är fyllda med uranoxid. Dessa bränslepatroner byts ut varje eller vartannat år. För att värmeenergin skall vara lika stor både när patronerna är nya och i slutet, använder man så kallade kontrollstavar. Dessa sitter i reaktorn emellan bränslepatronerna. Kontrollstavarna är gjorda i ett ämne som drar till sig neutroner. Ju fler kontrollstavar som sitter i ju mer bromsas fissionen. I en reaktor har man så många kontrollstavar så fissionen kan stoppas helt. De förbrukade bränsle-patronerna är mycket radioaktiva och måste förvaras säkert, detta är det debatterade kärnavfallet. Mer om detta senare i arbetet.
Olika typer av kärnreaktorer
Det finns flera olika typer av kärnreaktorer vilka illustreras enkelt på denna och nästa sida. Den vanligaste reaktorn i Sverige är kokar-reaktorn. När värmeenergin kommer från fissionsprocessen kokar den vatten så att det kokar till ånga som alstrar ström. Tryckvattenreaktorn förekommer i Sverige bara på Ringhals, men är vanlig i hela västvärlden.I den används vatten under högt tryck både som kylare och moderator. Moderatorns uppgift är att bromsa neutronerna. En annan reaktortyp är den gaskylda reaktorn, som är den äldsta. Denna typ förekommer endast
på ett fåtal ställen i Storbritanien. I denna typ använder man koldioxid som kylare och grafit som moderator. Den sista reaktortypen före-kommer endast i Canada, Indien och Argentina. Den kallas CANDU-reaktor och använder tungt vatten både som moderator och kylare. Tungt vatten ser precis ut som vanligt vatten men är effektivare som moderator. Tungt vatten består av en syreatom och två deuterium-atomer.
Bridreaktor
Det finns också en annan sorts reaktor som använder vanliga kärnkraft-verks avfall som bränsle. Dessa reaktorer kallas bridreaktorer. De använder plutonium och uran 238 som bränsle, som båda är avfall från vanliga kärnkraftverk. Bridreaktorn skiljer sig från vanliga reaktorer på flera viktiga punkter, bland annat att den saknar moderator och därför ibland kallas för snabb reaktor. Temperaturen är mycket högre än i vanliga reaktorer och därför använder man natrium i stället för vatten. (Se bild) Små reaktorer av denna typ har varit igång i Frankrike och Storbritanien sen 70-talet, men många hävdar att de är osäkra.
Intervju med Sten-Ove Beck
Jag ringde Ringhals kärnkraftverk, som ägs av Vattenfall, för att intervjua Sten-Ove Beck. Sten-Ove Beck arbetar på RInghals informationsav-delning. Jag frågade honom om allmänna saker om kärnkraften. På frågan om han tycker vi skall avveckla kärnkraften i Sverige svarar han att han tycker vi skall avveckla den om det finns något annat alternativ, och det finns det inte enligt honom idag. En fråga som jag ställde som blivit aktuell på senare år är U-länders och Sovjets osäkra kärnkraftverk, som till exempel Tjernobyl. Sten-Ove svarar att han tycker vi skall hjälpa dem så mycket vi kan. Vidare säger han att de verkligen behöver sin energi och att vi kan hjälpa dem ekonomiskt i stället för att satsa extra pengar på våra egna kärnkraftverk, som redan är bland världens säkraste kärnkraftverk. Han nämde också en del nackdelar om kärnkraften bland annat den bristande kunskapen om strålning och om kärnavfallets problem. Han säger vidare att Sverige har en av världens bästa metoder att förvara kärnavfall på, alltså nere i bergrum i urberget. Jag delar hans åsikter om både U-länders kärnkraftverk och hans åsikter om avveckling av kärn-kraften.
På bilden nedan ser vi Ringhals väldiga kärnkraftverk med sina tre tryck-vattenreaktorer och sin kokarreaktor. Tryckvattenreaktorerna är de svart-vita runda byggnaderna och kokarreaktorn är den stora fyrkantiga grå-vita byggnaden med hög skorsten.
Kärnavfallet
Kärnavfallet brukar delas in i följande tre grupper:
Högaktivt avfall
Detta är det använda bränslet från kärnkraftverken. Det dröjer tusentals år innan detta avfall blir ofarligt för människan. Man har beräknat att det kommer bli totalt 7800 ton av detta avfall fram till år 2010 om alla reaktorer som idag är i drift.
Låg- och mellanaktivt avfall
Detta är avfall från kärnkraftverk till exempel filter, överdragskläder, skrotade verktyg med mera. Detta avfall behöver bara isoleras i några hundra år innan det blir ofarligt för människan.
Rivningsavfall
Detta är det radioaktiva avfall som blir vi nedläggning av kärnkraftverken. Detta behandlas på samma sätt som låg- och mellanaktivt avfall.
Låg- och mellanaktivt avfall från kärnkraftverken, sjukvården, industrin och forskningen tas om han av SFR (Slutförvar för radioaktivt avfall). Avfallet placeras femtio meter under havsytan, där det får ligga i några hundra år tills det blir ofarligt för människan. Det högaktiva avfallet transporteras till CLAB (Centralt lager för använt bränsle) där det mellanlagras i 40 år. Lagringen sker i vattenfyllda bassänger 25 meter under markytan. Vattnet fungerar både som kylmedel och som avskär-mare. Efter 40 års mellanlagring skall det slutförvaras. (Än så länge har inte slutförvaringen påbörjats, den beräknas starta 2010) Man har flera ideér för hur sluförvaringen skall ske, den vanligaste är att avfallet gjuts i koppar och grävs ner 500 meter ner i urberget. Det finns även förslag om att vi skall skicka ut det i rymden.
De som har hand om allt kärnavfall i Sverige är SKB. (Svensk kärnbränslehantering AB) De har ett specialbyggt fartyg (m/s Sigyn) för transporter av kärnavfall. De äger även speciella fordon för transport till fartyget och behållare för avfall. Ett litet räkneexempel från SKB visar att en om svensk normalfamilj på fyra personer årligen gör av med 8000 kWh (Ej inräknat uppvärmning av bostad) och får all sin elenergi från ett kärnkraftverk så blir det en liter kärnavfall per år för den familjen.
Radioaktivitet
Vi utsätts dagligen för radioaktiv strålning, både från rymden, solen, kroppen och från marken. Många får även i sig radioaktiv strålning genom röntgen och av att de bor i så kallade radonhus. Om det radio-aktiva avfallet skulle komma ut till människoroch djur i större mängder kan det orsaka cancer. Avfallet från kärnkraften måste inte enbart skydda människor från den den direkta strålningen utan även från förgiftning av till exempel grundvattnet. För att förhindra detta behandlas alltid kärnavfallet i fast form.
Folkomröstningen 1980
En söndag 1980 gick 75 % av Sveriges röstberättigade personer till vallokalen för att rösta för eller emot kärnkraften. Det fanns tre olika röst-alternativ, linje 1, linje 2 och linje 3. Man fick självklart även rösta blankt. Linje 1 stod för en utbyggnad av 6 reaktorer till och sedan en långsam avveckling av kärnkraften i Sverige. Linje 2 stog för ungefär samma saker, men var mer detaljerad hur det skulle ske. Linje 3 var helt emot kärnkraften, och en avveckling inom tio år. (Se nedan hur röstsedlarna såg ut.) Resultatet i omröstningen blev så här:
Antal röster Procent
Linje 1 904.968 18,9%
Linje 2 1.869.344 39,1%
Linje 3 1.846.911 38,7%
Blanka röster 157.103 3,3%
Antal röstande 4.781.479 75,6%
Antal röstberättigade 6.321.165
Valdeltagandet var som synes lågt. Många trodde att linje 3 skulle bli vinnaren i valet, mycket beroende på opinionsundersökningar innan och Harrisburg-olyckan några år tidigare, men vinnaren blev med knapp marginal linje 2.
Kärnvapen och atombomber
Kärnvapen och atombomber tillhör en grupp av vapen som kallas ABC-stridsmedel, vilket betyder Atom-, biologiska- och kemiska vapen. (Engelska: Atomic-, biological- and chemical weapons) Till kärnvapnen räknas uran-, plutonium- och vätevapen. I uran- och plutoniumvapen sker en kärnklyvning (fission) med uran eller plutonium. Vätevapen fungerar genom en sammanslagning av lätta atomkärnor till tyngre. (fusion) Strategiska kärnvapen är vapen som är riktade mot befolknings- och industricentra eller mot militära flyg-, flott- eller robotbaser. Mindre kärnvapen kallas taktiska kärnvapen och används mot taktiska mål såsom flygplan, fartyg och militärförband. Man brukar mäta kärnvapens sprängverkan i hur många tusen kilo vanligt sprängämne sprängsverkan motsvarar:
1000 Kg = 1 KiloTon (KT) 1 miljon Kg = 1 MegaTon (MT)
Bomberna som släpptes i Japan 1945 hade en sprängverkan på 20 KT, det motsvarar alltså 20000 Kg vanligt sprängämne.
Det finns tre olika sorters atombomber, väte-, uran- och plutoniumbomb. Vätebomben använder sig som sagt av en fusions-reaktion och är tusentals gånger starkare än uran- och plutonium-bomber. Atombomben som släpptes den 6 augusti 1945 över staden Hiroshima i Japan var en uranbomb på cirka 20 KT. Förutom de 80.000-90.000 människor som dog och lika många skadade vid själva explosio-nen har många dött långt senare på grund av den radioaktiva strålningen från bomben. För att åstadkomma effekten av den 7 ton tunga bomben med ungefär 40 kg uranbränsle skulle det i Europa krävas 1000 flygplan vid samma tid.
Ordförklaringar
Atom är den minsta del ett ämne kan delas i. Atomen består av en atomkärna, vilken det kretsar elektroner runt.
Atomkärna är kärnan av atomen. Den består av protoner och neutroner som hålls samman av starka krafter.
Deuterium är en väteisotop, som består av en proton och en neutron. Används vid fusionsreaktioner.
Effekt är energi på en viss tid. Ex. hästkraft, watt.
Elektron är en negativt laddad partikel som kretsar runt atomkärnan.
Fission är en kärnklyvning av tunga ämnen då energi frigörs.
Fusion är en sammanslagning av lätta atomkärnor till tyngre atomkärnor samtidigt som energi frigörs.
Gravitation är den kraft som verkar mellan alla föremål. Ju större massa och ju kortare avstång ju större är gravitationskraften.
Härd är den del av en kärnreaktor där bränslet placerats.
Isotop är en variant av ett grundämne som har samma egenskaper men har olika antal neutroner i atomkärnan.
Den kritiska massan är den minsta mängden kärnbränsle för att starta en kedjereaktion.
kWh (kilowattimme) är en enhet för energiförbrukning.
Kärnreaktor är en annordning där en kärnreaktion äger rum.
Moderator är ett ämne som bromsar neutronernas fart så att en fission kan ske. Används i kärnkraftverk.
Neutron är en kärnpartikel utan elektisk laddning.
Plasma är ett gasliknande tillstånd då atomerna inte har några elektroner.
Plutonium är ett klyvbart grundämne. Det finns ej i naturen men kan framställas av uran i en kärnreaktor.
Proton är en kärnpartikel med positiv laddning
Tritium är en väteisotop med en atomkärna bestående av en proton och två neutroner.
Uran är en naturligt förekommande radioaktiv metall. Används som bränsle i kärnreaktorer. Uran är ett grundämne med den kemiska beteckningen U.
Watt (W) är en enhet för effekt. Watt = Joule/sekund
Källförteckning
Material från Vattenfall - Ringhals
Material från SKB (Svensk kärnbränslehantering AB)
Bra Böckers Lexikon
Svenska Dagbladet
Media Familjelexikon - Bonniers
Kärnkraften av Per Kågeson och Kerstin Ahlgren .- Prisma
Fängslad vid kärnkraften? av Per Kågeson och Björn Kjellström - Liber
Kärnavfallet av Anna Schytt - Sveriges Radios Förlag
Upptäck energi av Frank Frazer - Bonnier Fakta
Sunday 14 October 2012
Nuclear Power 2
Nuclear Power
Producing energy from a nuclear power plant is very complicated. The process of nuclear energy involves the fission of atoms, the release of energy from fission as heat, and the transfer of heat to electricity in power plants.
The process of splitting the atom is called nuclear fission. Fission can take place in many different kinds of atoms. This explanation uses Uranium - 235, the atom most commonly used in nuclear reactors. The Uranium atom has many protons, thus making it unstable. Since the nucleus of the atom is so unstable it wants to split itself apart, causing a spontaneous fission. When the nuclei of a Uranium atom splits apart, it splits into two atoms. Commonly the nucleus splits into Barium and Krypton; however, it can split into any two atoms as long as the number of protons equals the original amount of the protons found in the Uranium. In addition, a mass amount of energy is released along with two or three neutrons. It is these neutrons that can begin a chain reaction, each neutron that is given off could collide with another Uranium atom splitting it apart. Each of these fissioning atoms releases a very large amount of energy, and some more neutrons.
This process continues causing a chain reaction withut any outside assistance, and the Uranium has "gone critical"(Martindale, 794-195). This chain reaction is the basis for how nuclear power is made.
The amount of the energy that is given off in nuclear fission is astronomical. To equal the amount of energy given off when splitting some uranium the size of a golf ball, one would have to burn approximately twenty-five train cars full of coal. Presently, the planet contains twenty-five times more nuclear fuel compared to fossil fuel. On average, an atomic power plant can produce half a million kilowatts of power. As a comparison, a hair dryer takes about one kilowatt (Jenny, 1-2).
The producing of energy from nuclear fission is very similar to using a very common fossil fuel boiler. The difference lies in the reactor, where the heat is generated by fissioning material. The most common of reactors is the pressurized water reactor; however, there are many other types.
The pressurized water reactor is the most common reactor in the United States. The reactor of a nuclear power plant is where the fissioning takes place. The Uranium is contained in fuel rods, each rod is sealed so no contamination occurs. Many of these rods are then contained in a fuel assembly. All the fuel assemblies are separated by control rods. The control rods limit the amount of fission taking place by the use of Boron, an element that absorbs neutrons. If the control rod is inserted, it collects the neutrons from the fissioning atoms, which slows down or stops fission taking place in the reactor. There commonly are 300 to 600 fuel assemblies in one reactor (Michio, 31). Surrounding all of the fuel assemblies is a moderator, water in most cases. The moderator is a substance that is used to slow down the neutrons. The slower the neutrons travel, the more likely they will strike the nucleus of an atom. The process begins when a spontaneous fission takes place and starts the chain reaction. The control rods are the inserted to keep the rate of fission constant, this is called "going critical". As the fission takes place in the fuel assemblies, the kinetic energy (heat) given off is absorbed by the water. The water is under pressure so it will never boil. The water becomes super heated, sometimes above 300º C, and is then pumped into a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger runs water, at normal pressure, through pipes in the super heated water, boiling the water at normal pressure vigorously. That boiling water quickly turns to steam which is then used to turn massive generators. The generators then turn the kinetic energy into electricity (Weiss, 26). The steam then is cooled down and returned to the heat exchanger so it will boil again. If there is no need to use the water again, it is pumped into a nearby lake or river. In turn, if more water is needed, it is pumped from a nearby lake or river. If the water in the reactor becomes too hot, it is vented into a cooling tower where the water is condensed to steam and released into the air. Then cool water from a lake or river is pumped into the reactor to cool it down.
There are many other ways of utilizing nuclear fission for energy. Of these, the more popular types are the heavy water reactors, the gas-cooled reactors, the graphite moderated water-cooled reactors, and the fast breeder reactors.
The heavy water reactor is mainly found in Canadian reactors, where heavy water is abundant. The heavy water reactor is almost the same as the pressurized water reactor. The pressurized water is heated, and then pumped into a heat exchanger. The pressurized water is used to boil ordinary water, turning it into steam. The steam is then used to turn a generator. The advantage is that a heavy water is used as the moderator. Heavy water is has a special isotope of hydrogen in it. Since heavy water is a larger particle of matter, it slows down the neutrons even more, and less energy wasted. Another benefit of this reactor, is that it doesn't have to be shut down to refuel (Martindale, 797).
The gas cooled reactors uses graphite as the moderator and carbon dioxide or helium as the coolant. The gas is heated and then again passed to a heat exchanger where steam is produced to turn the generators. The gas cooled reactors are most commonly found in Europe (Martindale, 797).
Another kind of reactor is the graphite moderated water cooled reactor. This reactor is almost exclusively used in the Soviet Union. This form of reactor is a hybrid of the pressurized water reactors and the graphite moderated reactors. The advantage of using this form of reactor is that it does not have to be shut down for refueling. However, because of the poor engineering, this reactor is commonly known for uncontrollable chain reactions leading to meltdowns. This is the type of reactor that melted down in Chernobyl. For this reason no other country is willing to take on the risks connected with this reactor (Foreman, 38).
The last type of reactor, the fast breeder reactor, is of a unique design. The core of the reactor still contains uranium - 235; however, lining the walls of the reactor is uranium - 238. When there is little or no moderator to slow the neutrons, some of the stray neutrons strike the uranium - 238 on the walls producing plutonium - 239 or uranium - 233. Both of these by products are then used as the fuel in the reactor (Martindale, 797). The obvious advantage of this form of reactor is that it takes less of our worlds nuclear fuel to run the plant(Martindale, 797).
Nuclear reactors are a complicated form of an energy source. Although similar in the over all form, the nuclear power plants can produce much more energy then the conventional fossil fuel power plants.
Sources
Kaku, Michio and Trainer, Jennifer, et al. Nuclear Power: Both sides. Toronto: George J. McLeod Limited, 1982.
Foreman, Harry. Nuclear Power and the Public. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1970.
Martindale, David, et al. Heath Physics. Lexington: D.C. Heath and company, 1992.
Weiss, Ann. The Nuclear Question. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanoich, 1981.
Jenny and Mike. Atomic Energy. Internet: http://web66.coled.umn.edu/hillside/franklin/atomic/project.html
Producing energy from a nuclear power plant is very complicated. The process of nuclear energy involves the fission of atoms, the release of energy from fission as heat, and the transfer of heat to electricity in power plants.
The process of splitting the atom is called nuclear fission. Fission can take place in many different kinds of atoms. This explanation uses Uranium - 235, the atom most commonly used in nuclear reactors. The Uranium atom has many protons, thus making it unstable. Since the nucleus of the atom is so unstable it wants to split itself apart, causing a spontaneous fission. When the nuclei of a Uranium atom splits apart, it splits into two atoms. Commonly the nucleus splits into Barium and Krypton; however, it can split into any two atoms as long as the number of protons equals the original amount of the protons found in the Uranium. In addition, a mass amount of energy is released along with two or three neutrons. It is these neutrons that can begin a chain reaction, each neutron that is given off could collide with another Uranium atom splitting it apart. Each of these fissioning atoms releases a very large amount of energy, and some more neutrons.
This process continues causing a chain reaction withut any outside assistance, and the Uranium has "gone critical"(Martindale, 794-195). This chain reaction is the basis for how nuclear power is made.
The amount of the energy that is given off in nuclear fission is astronomical. To equal the amount of energy given off when splitting some uranium the size of a golf ball, one would have to burn approximately twenty-five train cars full of coal. Presently, the planet contains twenty-five times more nuclear fuel compared to fossil fuel. On average, an atomic power plant can produce half a million kilowatts of power. As a comparison, a hair dryer takes about one kilowatt (Jenny, 1-2).
The producing of energy from nuclear fission is very similar to using a very common fossil fuel boiler. The difference lies in the reactor, where the heat is generated by fissioning material. The most common of reactors is the pressurized water reactor; however, there are many other types.
The pressurized water reactor is the most common reactor in the United States. The reactor of a nuclear power plant is where the fissioning takes place. The Uranium is contained in fuel rods, each rod is sealed so no contamination occurs. Many of these rods are then contained in a fuel assembly. All the fuel assemblies are separated by control rods. The control rods limit the amount of fission taking place by the use of Boron, an element that absorbs neutrons. If the control rod is inserted, it collects the neutrons from the fissioning atoms, which slows down or stops fission taking place in the reactor. There commonly are 300 to 600 fuel assemblies in one reactor (Michio, 31). Surrounding all of the fuel assemblies is a moderator, water in most cases. The moderator is a substance that is used to slow down the neutrons. The slower the neutrons travel, the more likely they will strike the nucleus of an atom. The process begins when a spontaneous fission takes place and starts the chain reaction. The control rods are the inserted to keep the rate of fission constant, this is called "going critical". As the fission takes place in the fuel assemblies, the kinetic energy (heat) given off is absorbed by the water. The water is under pressure so it will never boil. The water becomes super heated, sometimes above 300º C, and is then pumped into a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger runs water, at normal pressure, through pipes in the super heated water, boiling the water at normal pressure vigorously. That boiling water quickly turns to steam which is then used to turn massive generators. The generators then turn the kinetic energy into electricity (Weiss, 26). The steam then is cooled down and returned to the heat exchanger so it will boil again. If there is no need to use the water again, it is pumped into a nearby lake or river. In turn, if more water is needed, it is pumped from a nearby lake or river. If the water in the reactor becomes too hot, it is vented into a cooling tower where the water is condensed to steam and released into the air. Then cool water from a lake or river is pumped into the reactor to cool it down.
There are many other ways of utilizing nuclear fission for energy. Of these, the more popular types are the heavy water reactors, the gas-cooled reactors, the graphite moderated water-cooled reactors, and the fast breeder reactors.
The heavy water reactor is mainly found in Canadian reactors, where heavy water is abundant. The heavy water reactor is almost the same as the pressurized water reactor. The pressurized water is heated, and then pumped into a heat exchanger. The pressurized water is used to boil ordinary water, turning it into steam. The steam is then used to turn a generator. The advantage is that a heavy water is used as the moderator. Heavy water is has a special isotope of hydrogen in it. Since heavy water is a larger particle of matter, it slows down the neutrons even more, and less energy wasted. Another benefit of this reactor, is that it doesn't have to be shut down to refuel (Martindale, 797).
The gas cooled reactors uses graphite as the moderator and carbon dioxide or helium as the coolant. The gas is heated and then again passed to a heat exchanger where steam is produced to turn the generators. The gas cooled reactors are most commonly found in Europe (Martindale, 797).
Another kind of reactor is the graphite moderated water cooled reactor. This reactor is almost exclusively used in the Soviet Union. This form of reactor is a hybrid of the pressurized water reactors and the graphite moderated reactors. The advantage of using this form of reactor is that it does not have to be shut down for refueling. However, because of the poor engineering, this reactor is commonly known for uncontrollable chain reactions leading to meltdowns. This is the type of reactor that melted down in Chernobyl. For this reason no other country is willing to take on the risks connected with this reactor (Foreman, 38).
The last type of reactor, the fast breeder reactor, is of a unique design. The core of the reactor still contains uranium - 235; however, lining the walls of the reactor is uranium - 238. When there is little or no moderator to slow the neutrons, some of the stray neutrons strike the uranium - 238 on the walls producing plutonium - 239 or uranium - 233. Both of these by products are then used as the fuel in the reactor (Martindale, 797). The obvious advantage of this form of reactor is that it takes less of our worlds nuclear fuel to run the plant(Martindale, 797).
Nuclear reactors are a complicated form of an energy source. Although similar in the over all form, the nuclear power plants can produce much more energy then the conventional fossil fuel power plants.
Sources
Kaku, Michio and Trainer, Jennifer, et al. Nuclear Power: Both sides. Toronto: George J. McLeod Limited, 1982.
Foreman, Harry. Nuclear Power and the Public. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1970.
Martindale, David, et al. Heath Physics. Lexington: D.C. Heath and company, 1992.
Weiss, Ann. The Nuclear Question. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanoich, 1981.
Jenny and Mike. Atomic Energy. Internet: http://web66.coled.umn.edu/hillside/franklin/atomic/project.html
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear energy-This is energy that binds together
components of an atomic nucleus. This is made by the
process of nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is produced when
an atomic atom is split. The way nuclear pore is made is in
a nuclear reactor, this is most likely located in a nuclear
power plant. the fission that is produced is when a heavy
element splits in half or is halved into two smaller nuclei, the
power of the fission is located by the rate of the splitting of
the nuclei at once which causes watts of electricity to be
forced into the energy type.
Energy that is released by the nuclear fission matches
almost completely to that of the properties of kinetic fission
particles, only that the properties of the nuclear energies
nucleus are radioactive. These radioactive nucleuses can
be contained and used as fuel for the power. Most of this
power is fueled by uranium isotopes. These isotopes are
highly radioactive. The isotope catches the fast moving
neutrons created by the splitting atoms, it repels the slower
moving protons and electrons, then gathers the neutrons
and pulls them inward. While all these atoms are flying
about they smash together then split many of many times,
this is when the reactor grabs and pulls in the frictional
energy to be processed into electrical watts.
This usually causes heat or thermal energy, this must
be removed by some kind of a coolant. Most power plants
use water or another type of liquid based formula. these
coolants are always base related, never acidic. Very few
use gas related coolants in there reactors, these are known
as thermal reactor based power plants. Another nuclear
reactor type is a type that runs off of uranium oxide, the
uranium oxide is a gas form of the solid uranium. These
fuels which cause the radioactive particles usually are
always highly radioactive themselves. Because of this all
the power plants take high safety standards and use special
shields to prevent leakage. Usually the leakage can cause
nuclear contamination. This means they must take high
safety standards.
After nuclear fission has occurred many of the thermal
neutrons are moving at thermal neutrons are moving at
thermal velocities which are harder to be absorbed, so they
rely on constructional details. Usually they use thick medals
such as lead or tungsten, usually now though the barrier is
made of concrete. The average shield of a power plant
twelve to fourteen feet in diameter and fifteen to twenty feet
high.
This creates a problem with gamma ray leakage out
into the biomes. this usually would only happen in a time of
crises, this is why shields are so highly needed. Because of
this factor there are secondary shields only used in cases of
extreme emergencies. Usually this action triggers the fast
pace emergency reactions. In this time the secondary
emergency system reacts, the way that it reacts is by
enclosing the reactor in a gastight chamber. This chamber
has airlocks, these airlocks are double sealed and are
usually two sided. The shielded covers the entire reactor,
and the primary coolant system. All the coolant vents are
automatically shut up and off. This safely contain the fission
products inside the shell. Another way of stopping this is the
Negative Temperature Coefficient, what this seal does is
seal off the reactor and pump in gases that are of sub-zero
negative temperature properties, this freezes the thermal
neutrons, slow the fission, and finally freeze the radiation
particles. These procedures are highly effective in stopping
the contamination of the local community.
Because of all the possible damage nuclear power
plants are designed and operated in a manner that
emphasizes the prevention of accidental release of
radioactivity out into the environment. there has never been
a death caused by a commercial nuclear power plant that
are located in the United States of America. The potential
for cancer and genetic damage as the result of the
accidental release of radioactivity has led to an increased
public concern about the safe operation of reactors.
Although the direct health effects from the resulting
release of radioactivity into the environment are still being
investigated, the psychological effects of an accident could
damage the nuclear power associations credibility.
International concern over the issue of reactor safety was
renewed following an accident at a facility in the Soviet
Union in April 1986. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant,
which is located 80 miles northwest of Kiev in Ukraine
suffered a castrophic meltdown of its nuclear fuel. A
radioactive cloud spread from the plant over most of Europe,
this contaminated a very large amount of crops, and
livestock. Lesser amounts of this radiation showed up.
These are some reasons why people and the
community are very cautious against nuclear power, I hope
that this report can better inform people on this issue, even
though nuclear energy is the cleanest, and supposedly the
safest I still lay undecided. Here are some pictures on the
topic.
Nuclear energy-This is energy that binds together
components of an atomic nucleus. This is made by the
process of nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is produced when
an atomic atom is split. The way nuclear pore is made is in
a nuclear reactor, this is most likely located in a nuclear
power plant. the fission that is produced is when a heavy
element splits in half or is halved into two smaller nuclei, the
power of the fission is located by the rate of the splitting of
the nuclei at once which causes watts of electricity to be
forced into the energy type.
Energy that is released by the nuclear fission matches
almost completely to that of the properties of kinetic fission
particles, only that the properties of the nuclear energies
nucleus are radioactive. These radioactive nucleuses can
be contained and used as fuel for the power. Most of this
power is fueled by uranium isotopes. These isotopes are
highly radioactive. The isotope catches the fast moving
neutrons created by the splitting atoms, it repels the slower
moving protons and electrons, then gathers the neutrons
and pulls them inward. While all these atoms are flying
about they smash together then split many of many times,
this is when the reactor grabs and pulls in the frictional
energy to be processed into electrical watts.
This usually causes heat or thermal energy, this must
be removed by some kind of a coolant. Most power plants
use water or another type of liquid based formula. these
coolants are always base related, never acidic. Very few
use gas related coolants in there reactors, these are known
as thermal reactor based power plants. Another nuclear
reactor type is a type that runs off of uranium oxide, the
uranium oxide is a gas form of the solid uranium. These
fuels which cause the radioactive particles usually are
always highly radioactive themselves. Because of this all
the power plants take high safety standards and use special
shields to prevent leakage. Usually the leakage can cause
nuclear contamination. This means they must take high
safety standards.
After nuclear fission has occurred many of the thermal
neutrons are moving at thermal neutrons are moving at
thermal velocities which are harder to be absorbed, so they
rely on constructional details. Usually they use thick medals
such as lead or tungsten, usually now though the barrier is
made of concrete. The average shield of a power plant
twelve to fourteen feet in diameter and fifteen to twenty feet
high.
This creates a problem with gamma ray leakage out
into the biomes. this usually would only happen in a time of
crises, this is why shields are so highly needed. Because of
this factor there are secondary shields only used in cases of
extreme emergencies. Usually this action triggers the fast
pace emergency reactions. In this time the secondary
emergency system reacts, the way that it reacts is by
enclosing the reactor in a gastight chamber. This chamber
has airlocks, these airlocks are double sealed and are
usually two sided. The shielded covers the entire reactor,
and the primary coolant system. All the coolant vents are
automatically shut up and off. This safely contain the fission
products inside the shell. Another way of stopping this is the
Negative Temperature Coefficient, what this seal does is
seal off the reactor and pump in gases that are of sub-zero
negative temperature properties, this freezes the thermal
neutrons, slow the fission, and finally freeze the radiation
particles. These procedures are highly effective in stopping
the contamination of the local community.
Because of all the possible damage nuclear power
plants are designed and operated in a manner that
emphasizes the prevention of accidental release of
radioactivity out into the environment. there has never been
a death caused by a commercial nuclear power plant that
are located in the United States of America. The potential
for cancer and genetic damage as the result of the
accidental release of radioactivity has led to an increased
public concern about the safe operation of reactors.
Although the direct health effects from the resulting
release of radioactivity into the environment are still being
investigated, the psychological effects of an accident could
damage the nuclear power associations credibility.
International concern over the issue of reactor safety was
renewed following an accident at a facility in the Soviet
Union in April 1986. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant,
which is located 80 miles northwest of Kiev in Ukraine
suffered a castrophic meltdown of its nuclear fuel. A
radioactive cloud spread from the plant over most of Europe,
this contaminated a very large amount of crops, and
livestock. Lesser amounts of this radiation showed up.
These are some reasons why people and the
community are very cautious against nuclear power, I hope
that this report can better inform people on this issue, even
though nuclear energy is the cleanest, and supposedly the
safest I still lay undecided. Here are some pictures on the
topic.
Nuclear energy-This is energy that binds together
components of an atomic nucleus. This is made by the
process of nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is produced when
an atomic atom is split. The way nuclear pore is made is in
a nuclear reactor, this is most likely located in a nuclear
power plant. the fission that is produced is when a heavy
element splits in half or is halved into two smaller nuclei, the
power of the fission is located by the rate of t
components of an atomic nucleus. This is made by the
process of nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is produced when
an atomic atom is split. The way nuclear pore is made is in
a nuclear reactor, this is most likely located in a nuclear
power plant. the fission that is produced is when a heavy
element splits in half or is halved into two smaller nuclei, the
power of the fission is located by the rate of the splitting of
the nuclei at once which causes watts of electricity to be
forced into the energy type.
Energy that is released by the nuclear fission matches
almost completely to that of the properties of kinetic fission
particles, only that the properties of the nuclear energies
nucleus are radioactive. These radioactive nucleuses can
be contained and used as fuel for the power. Most of this
power is fueled by uranium isotopes. These isotopes are
highly radioactive. The isotope catches the fast moving
neutrons created by the splitting atoms, it repels the slower
moving protons and electrons, then gathers the neutrons
and pulls them inward. While all these atoms are flying
about they smash together then split many of many times,
this is when the reactor grabs and pulls in the frictional
energy to be processed into electrical watts.
This usually causes heat or thermal energy, this must
be removed by some kind of a coolant. Most power plants
use water or another type of liquid based formula. these
coolants are always base related, never acidic. Very few
use gas related coolants in there reactors, these are known
as thermal reactor based power plants. Another nuclear
reactor type is a type that runs off of uranium oxide, the
uranium oxide is a gas form of the solid uranium. These
fuels which cause the radioactive particles usually are
always highly radioactive themselves. Because of this all
the power plants take high safety standards and use special
shields to prevent leakage. Usually the leakage can cause
nuclear contamination. This means they must take high
safety standards.
After nuclear fission has occurred many of the thermal
neutrons are moving at thermal neutrons are moving at
thermal velocities which are harder to be absorbed, so they
rely on constructional details. Usually they use thick medals
such as lead or tungsten, usually now though the barrier is
made of concrete. The average shield of a power plant
twelve to fourteen feet in diameter and fifteen to twenty feet
high.
This creates a problem with gamma ray leakage out
into the biomes. this usually would only happen in a time of
crises, this is why shields are so highly needed. Because of
this factor there are secondary shields only used in cases of
extreme emergencies. Usually this action triggers the fast
pace emergency reactions. In this time the secondary
emergency system reacts, the way that it reacts is by
enclosing the reactor in a gastight chamber. This chamber
has airlocks, these airlocks are double sealed and are
usually two sided. The shielded covers the entire reactor,
and the primary coolant system. All the coolant vents are
automatically shut up and off. This safely contain the fission
products inside the shell. Another way of stopping this is the
Negative Temperature Coefficient, what this seal does is
seal off the reactor and pump in gases that are of sub-zero
negative temperature properties, this freezes the thermal
neutrons, slow the fission, and finally freeze the radiation
particles. These procedures are highly effective in stopping
the contamination of the local community.
Because of all the possible damage nuclear power
plants are designed and operated in a manner that
emphasizes the prevention of accidental release of
radioactivity out into the environment. there has never been
a death caused by a commercial nuclear power plant that
are located in the United States of America. The potential
for cancer and genetic damage as the result of the
accidental release of radioactivity has led to an increased
public concern about the safe operation of reactors.
Although the direct health effects from the resulting
release of radioactivity into the environment are still being
investigated, the psychological effects of an accident could
damage the nuclear power associations credibility.
International concern over the issue of reactor safety was
renewed following an accident at a facility in the Soviet
Union in April 1986. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant,
which is located 80 miles northwest of Kiev in Ukraine
suffered a castrophic meltdown of its nuclear fuel. A
radioactive cloud spread from the plant over most of Europe,
this contaminated a very large amount of crops, and
livestock. Lesser amounts of this radiation showed up.
These are some reasons why people and the
community are very cautious against nuclear power, I hope
that this report can better inform people on this issue, even
though nuclear energy is the cleanest, and supposedly the
safest I still lay undecided. Here are some pictures on the
topic.
Nuclear energy-This is energy that binds together
components of an atomic nucleus. This is made by the
process of nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is produced when
an atomic atom is split. The way nuclear pore is made is in
a nuclear reactor, this is most likely located in a nuclear
power plant. the fission that is produced is when a heavy
element splits in half or is halved into two smaller nuclei, the
power of the fission is located by the rate of the splitting of
the nuclei at once which causes watts of electricity to be
forced into the energy type.
Energy that is released by the nuclear fission matches
almost completely to that of the properties of kinetic fission
particles, only that the properties of the nuclear energies
nucleus are radioactive. These radioactive nucleuses can
be contained and used as fuel for the power. Most of this
power is fueled by uranium isotopes. These isotopes are
highly radioactive. The isotope catches the fast moving
neutrons created by the splitting atoms, it repels the slower
moving protons and electrons, then gathers the neutrons
and pulls them inward. While all these atoms are flying
about they smash together then split many of many times,
this is when the reactor grabs and pulls in the frictional
energy to be processed into electrical watts.
This usually causes heat or thermal energy, this must
be removed by some kind of a coolant. Most power plants
use water or another type of liquid based formula. these
coolants are always base related, never acidic. Very few
use gas related coolants in there reactors, these are known
as thermal reactor based power plants. Another nuclear
reactor type is a type that runs off of uranium oxide, the
uranium oxide is a gas form of the solid uranium. These
fuels which cause the radioactive particles usually are
always highly radioactive themselves. Because of this all
the power plants take high safety standards and use special
shields to prevent leakage. Usually the leakage can cause
nuclear contamination. This means they must take high
safety standards.
After nuclear fission has occurred many of the thermal
neutrons are moving at thermal neutrons are moving at
thermal velocities which are harder to be absorbed, so they
rely on constructional details. Usually they use thick medals
such as lead or tungsten, usually now though the barrier is
made of concrete. The average shield of a power plant
twelve to fourteen feet in diameter and fifteen to twenty feet
high.
This creates a problem with gamma ray leakage out
into the biomes. this usually would only happen in a time of
crises, this is why shields are so highly needed. Because of
this factor there are secondary shields only used in cases of
extreme emergencies. Usually this action triggers the fast
pace emergency reactions. In this time the secondary
emergency system reacts, the way that it reacts is by
enclosing the reactor in a gastight chamber. This chamber
has airlocks, these airlocks are double sealed and are
usually two sided. The shielded covers the entire reactor,
and the primary coolant system. All the coolant vents are
automatically shut up and off. This safely contain the fission
products inside the shell. Another way of stopping this is the
Negative Temperature Coefficient, what this seal does is
seal off the reactor and pump in gases that are of sub-zero
negative temperature properties, this freezes the thermal
neutrons, slow the fission, and finally freeze the radiation
particles. These procedures are highly effective in stopping
the contamination of the local community.
Because of all the possible damage nuclear power
plants are designed and operated in a manner that
emphasizes the prevention of accidental release of
radioactivity out into the environment. there has never been
a death caused by a commercial nuclear power plant that
are located in the United States of America. The potential
for cancer and genetic damage as the result of the
accidental release of radioactivity has led to an increased
public concern about the safe operation of reactors.
Although the direct health effects from the resulting
release of radioactivity into the environment are still being
investigated, the psychological effects of an accident could
damage the nuclear power associations credibility.
International concern over the issue of reactor safety was
renewed following an accident at a facility in the Soviet
Union in April 1986. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant,
which is located 80 miles northwest of Kiev in Ukraine
suffered a castrophic meltdown of its nuclear fuel. A
radioactive cloud spread from the plant over most of Europe,
this contaminated a very large amount of crops, and
livestock. Lesser amounts of this radiation showed up.
These are some reasons why people and the
community are very cautious against nuclear power, I hope
that this report can better inform people on this issue, even
though nuclear energy is the cleanest, and supposedly the
safest I still lay undecided. Here are some pictures on the
topic.
Nuclear energy-This is energy that binds together
components of an atomic nucleus. This is made by the
process of nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is produced when
an atomic atom is split. The way nuclear pore is made is in
a nuclear reactor, this is most likely located in a nuclear
power plant. the fission that is produced is when a heavy
element splits in half or is halved into two smaller nuclei, the
power of the fission is located by the rate of t
Nuclear Energy
During the twentieth century scientists have discovered how to unleash the most powerful energy of all; Nuclear energy. The study of nuclear energy began for the same reasons that most scientific studies are begun; to understand more about the universe and the laws by which the universe works. The more knowledge we have about the universe, the more we can control the world in which we live.
Nuclear energy is contained in the center, or nucleus of an atom. This energy is also known as atomic energy because its obtained from atoms, unfortunately this is not a good choice of words (because many other energies are obtained from atoms). An atomic bomb explosion shows just how powerful muclear energy really is. Such as the underwater explosion of an atomic bomb at Bikini during 1946. This powerful type of energy comes from many things such as atoms and subatomic particles; an atom is a tiny bit of matter that has very little weight. They are much too light to be weighed directly, but scientists have developed methods of determining these tiny weightd by using special labratory instruments. Hydrogen is the lightest of all atoms and carbon atoms weigh twelve times more than the hydrogen atom. Atoms that make up one alement are not like atoms that make up another element.
These (atoms) are not simple particles, their structure is very complexe. They are, in fact, made up of smaller bits of matter called subatomic particles. An atom has two parts. Those two parts are; 1)at the center is a nucleus, a densely packed core composed of two kinds of paticles: protons and neutrons and 2)electrons. The charge in a nucleus of an atom is carried by a particle called a proton, the number of protons in an atom's nucleus is calle the atomic number of the atom. Atomic numbers are always whole numbers such as +92. Each atomic number is always a whole number, and each chemical element has its own atomic number. Protons have a positive electrical charge, yet electrons have a negative charge and since opposite charges attract, it keeps them in their orbits around the nucleus. Neutrons are neutral and weigh a bit more than protons. The breaking apart or joining together of atomic nuclei is called a nuclear reaction. A tramendous amount of energy may be released by a nuclear reaction. Nuclear energy is housed in a nuclear reactor. There are many types of nuclear reactors such as a pressurized water reactor.
There is no specific place where nuclear nergy may be found, neither is there a special geographical place a nuclear power plant must be located. There are many hundreds of nuclear power plants throughout the world, not to mention, many military and research reactors. In the United states alone there are over a hundred plants; about 15% of the nations electricity is produced at these plants. Frace is the leading user of nuclear energy throughout the world, 65% of their electricity is prduced in Nuclear power plants. Other leaders include; Belgium-60%, Sweden-50%, Switzerland-40%, Finland-38%, West Germany-30%, Japan-22%, Spain and Britain-20%, and Soviet-Union-14%. There have been many accidents concerning nuclear power plants, despite the usually good safety record. Two of the most serious accidents have taken place in; 1)the United Staes, when a Unit 2 power plant on Three Mile Island, Southeast of Harrisburg, Pennysania and 2) U.S.S.R. the worst accident concerning nuclear reactors occured on April 26, 1986 at the Chernobyl reactor #4 lacated in a reactor complex near Kiev, Soviet Ukraine.
There are advantages and disadvantages
of nuclear power. Nuclear weapons are the most powerful and fearsome weapons ever introduced to man. Not only because of the enormouse amount of physical damage that results from their detonation but also because of the radiation it releases. Radiation can have long-term effects on humans and our environement. these long-term effects consists of things like:
1) radiation disrupts the process that takes place in the nuclei of living organismes cells, decreasing the resistance of disease and increasing risks of developing cancer.
2)Abnormalities such as mongolism can be passed to offspring. The damage done to our environment is irrepirable. Not to mention it is unknown if the disposal of nuclear waste will have any effects on our environement had we will not know until many years to come. The advantage of nuclear energy is it's a great source of power used to produce electricity for things such as light.
Many people throughout the world use nuclear energy in thier everyday lives. It is used to produce electricity for running our homes, schools and businesses. Also lighting, heating and cooling.
Nuclear energy is better than any other type of energy because it is the most powerful type of energy that can be created.
It is better than the following energy for example: 1) Hydro energy, because when created, rivers have to be blocked by dams. Thereby, most likely, flooding of wastelands where certain animal types may have their homes would be destroyed and maybe even cause death to those animals. In saome cases possible extinction.2) Heat energy created by the burning of wood because it is very destructive to our forest. Trees are a necessity of oxygen, shelter and food to animals and even humans. Finally 3)solar energy because you don't have to depend on the sum to shine.
In conclusion due to the potential for accidents or sabotage at nuclear power plants, they are not as common as power plants for other types of power/energy. The problems associated with radioactive waste produced, these plants have long been a subject of controversy. The developement of nuclear energy, for both peaceful and wartime uses is much more than a scientific issue. It is also a prominent public issue among people in all nations. Because of disasters at nuclear power plants such as the one at Chernobyl, people everywhere refuse to except nuclear power palnts anywhere near their homes. They also refuse to have nuclear waste disposal sites near their homes no matter how safe the gouvernment and companies may say it is.
Nuclear energy is contained in the center, or nucleus of an atom. This energy is also known as atomic energy because its obtained from atoms, unfortunately this is not a good choice of words (because many other energies are obtained from atoms). An atomic bomb explosion shows just how powerful muclear energy really is. Such as the underwater explosion of an atomic bomb at Bikini during 1946. This powerful type of energy comes from many things such as atoms and subatomic particles; an atom is a tiny bit of matter that has very little weight. They are much too light to be weighed directly, but scientists have developed methods of determining these tiny weightd by using special labratory instruments. Hydrogen is the lightest of all atoms and carbon atoms weigh twelve times more than the hydrogen atom. Atoms that make up one alement are not like atoms that make up another element.
These (atoms) are not simple particles, their structure is very complexe. They are, in fact, made up of smaller bits of matter called subatomic particles. An atom has two parts. Those two parts are; 1)at the center is a nucleus, a densely packed core composed of two kinds of paticles: protons and neutrons and 2)electrons. The charge in a nucleus of an atom is carried by a particle called a proton, the number of protons in an atom's nucleus is calle the atomic number of the atom. Atomic numbers are always whole numbers such as +92. Each atomic number is always a whole number, and each chemical element has its own atomic number. Protons have a positive electrical charge, yet electrons have a negative charge and since opposite charges attract, it keeps them in their orbits around the nucleus. Neutrons are neutral and weigh a bit more than protons. The breaking apart or joining together of atomic nuclei is called a nuclear reaction. A tramendous amount of energy may be released by a nuclear reaction. Nuclear energy is housed in a nuclear reactor. There are many types of nuclear reactors such as a pressurized water reactor.
There is no specific place where nuclear nergy may be found, neither is there a special geographical place a nuclear power plant must be located. There are many hundreds of nuclear power plants throughout the world, not to mention, many military and research reactors. In the United states alone there are over a hundred plants; about 15% of the nations electricity is produced at these plants. Frace is the leading user of nuclear energy throughout the world, 65% of their electricity is prduced in Nuclear power plants. Other leaders include; Belgium-60%, Sweden-50%, Switzerland-40%, Finland-38%, West Germany-30%, Japan-22%, Spain and Britain-20%, and Soviet-Union-14%. There have been many accidents concerning nuclear power plants, despite the usually good safety record. Two of the most serious accidents have taken place in; 1)the United Staes, when a Unit 2 power plant on Three Mile Island, Southeast of Harrisburg, Pennysania and 2) U.S.S.R. the worst accident concerning nuclear reactors occured on April 26, 1986 at the Chernobyl reactor #4 lacated in a reactor complex near Kiev, Soviet Ukraine.
There are advantages and disadvantages
of nuclear power. Nuclear weapons are the most powerful and fearsome weapons ever introduced to man. Not only because of the enormouse amount of physical damage that results from their detonation but also because of the radiation it releases. Radiation can have long-term effects on humans and our environement. these long-term effects consists of things like:
1) radiation disrupts the process that takes place in the nuclei of living organismes cells, decreasing the resistance of disease and increasing risks of developing cancer.
2)Abnormalities such as mongolism can be passed to offspring. The damage done to our environment is irrepirable. Not to mention it is unknown if the disposal of nuclear waste will have any effects on our environement had we will not know until many years to come. The advantage of nuclear energy is it's a great source of power used to produce electricity for things such as light.
Many people throughout the world use nuclear energy in thier everyday lives. It is used to produce electricity for running our homes, schools and businesses. Also lighting, heating and cooling.
Nuclear energy is better than any other type of energy because it is the most powerful type of energy that can be created.
It is better than the following energy for example: 1) Hydro energy, because when created, rivers have to be blocked by dams. Thereby, most likely, flooding of wastelands where certain animal types may have their homes would be destroyed and maybe even cause death to those animals. In saome cases possible extinction.2) Heat energy created by the burning of wood because it is very destructive to our forest. Trees are a necessity of oxygen, shelter and food to animals and even humans. Finally 3)solar energy because you don't have to depend on the sum to shine.
In conclusion due to the potential for accidents or sabotage at nuclear power plants, they are not as common as power plants for other types of power/energy. The problems associated with radioactive waste produced, these plants have long been a subject of controversy. The developement of nuclear energy, for both peaceful and wartime uses is much more than a scientific issue. It is also a prominent public issue among people in all nations. Because of disasters at nuclear power plants such as the one at Chernobyl, people everywhere refuse to except nuclear power palnts anywhere near their homes. They also refuse to have nuclear waste disposal sites near their homes no matter how safe the gouvernment and companies may say it is.
Nikola Tesla
Few people recognize his name today, and even among those who do, the
words Nikola Tesla are likly to summon up the image of a crackpot rather than
an authentic scientist. Nikola Tesla was possibly the greatest inventor the
world has ever known. He was, without doubt, a genius who is not only credited
with many devices we use today, but is also credited with astonishing, sometimes
world-transforming, devices that are even simply amazing by todays scientific
standards.
Tesla was born at precisely midnight between July 9th and 10th, 1856, in
a small Hungarien village. He was born to his father, a priest, and his mother,
an unschooled but extremely intelligent women. Training for an engineering career,
he attendedthe Technical University of Graz, Austria and was shortly employed in a
government telegraph engineering office in Budapest, where he made his first
invention, a telephone repeater. Tesla sailed to America in 1884, arriving in New
York City with four cents in his pocket, and many great ideas in his head. He first
found employment with a young Thomas Edison in New Jersey, but the two inventors,
were far apart in background and methods. But, because of there differences, Tesla
soon left the employment of Edison, and in May 1885, George Westinghouse, head of
the Westinghouse Electric Company in Pittsburgh, bought the patent rights to many
of Tesla's inventions. After a difficult period, during which Tesla invented but
lost his rights to many inventions, he established his own laboratory in New York
City in 1887, where his inventive mind could be free. In 1895, Tesla discovered
X-rays after hours upon hours of experimentation. Tesla's countless experiments
included work on different power sources and various types of lightning. The Tesla
coil, which he invented in 1891, is widely used today in radio and television sets
and other electronic equipment for wireless communication. That year also marked the
date of Tesla's United States citizenship. Brilliant and eccentric, Tesla was then
at the peak of his inventive powers. He managed to produce new forms of generators,
transformers, he invented the fluorescent light, and he became extremely involved
with the wireless transmission of power.
During the 1880a and 1890's Tesla and Edison became rivals, fighting to
develop there inventions as quickly as possible. In 1915 he was severely disappointed
when a report that he and Edison were to share the Nobel Prize. Edison went back on
a promise to pay him a sum of money for a particular inventions and Tesla broke off
relations at once and went into the inventing business for himself. The biggest
rivaling against Edison was Tesla's development of alternating current which was
very conflicting to Edison's use of electricity, direct current. This great power
struggle between Tesla and Edison's use of electricity practically ended when Tesla's
alternating current won out and was most favored and ruled most practical. Tesla's
alternating current was used to light the Chicago's World Fair. His success was a
factor in winning him the contract to install the first power machinery at Niagara
Falls, which bore Tesla's name and patent numbers. The project carried power to
Buffalo by 1896. In 1898 Tesla announced his invention of a teleautomatic boat guided
by remote control. When skepticism was voiced, Tesla proved his claims for it before
a crowd in Madison Square Garden.
The biggest controversy in Tesla's career is what most popularizes his
name today, this controversy is the fact that Tesla made hundreds of inventions
and discoveries that was simply amazing. Many people have called tesla "a man out
of his time" because his astonishing experiments. In Colorado Springs, where he
stayed from May 1899 until early 1900, Tesla made what he regarded as his most
important discovery, terrestrial stationary waves. By this discovery he proved
that the earth could be used as a conductor and would be as responsive as a tuning
fork to electrical vibrations of a certain pitch. He also lighted 200 lamps without
wires from a distance of 25 miles and created man-made lightning, producing flashes
measuring 135 feet . He was fond of creating neighborhood-threatening electrical
storms in his apartment laboratory and once nearly knocked down a tall building
by attaching a mysterious "black box" to its side. He claimed he could have destroyed
the entire planet with a similar device. Caustic criticism greeted his speculations
concerning communication with other planets, his assertions that he could split the
earth like an apple, and his claim to having invented a death ray capable of
destroying 10,000 airplanes, 250 miles distant. Because of a lack of funds, his
ideas remained in his notebooks, which are still examined by engineers for
unexplored clues. Many of these were eventually inherited by Tesla's nephew, and later
housed in the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. However, a major portion
of his notes were impounded by the US Government, and very few of those have surfaced
today. And because he kept so few notes, to this day we can only guess at the
details of many of the fantastic scientific projects that he occupied. Many questions
have raised concerning his confiscated notes, although, the government regards
some as never existed and declared others as "lost". Was he working on particle
weapons and cloaking devices for the United States Government when he died? Was
Reagan's Strategic Defense program known as "starwars" the result of secret research
based on Tesla's discoveries half a century before?
Nikola Tesla allowed himself only a few close friends. Among them were
the writers Robert Underwood Johnson, Mark Twain, and Francis Marion Crawford. In
his later years, Tesla was alone with only his inventions and calculations, although
he did bred pigeons later in life, who he gave all the affection to that he was
unable to give human beings. Telsa's name holds over 700 patents. Tesla died
privately and peacefully at 87 on January 7, 1943 New York hotel
room from no
apparent cause in particular. Hundreds filed into New York City's Cathedral of
St.John for his funeral services, and a flood of messages acknowledged the loss of
a great genius. Three Nobel Prize winners in physics (Millikan, Compton, and W.H.
Barton) addressed their tributes. One of the outstanding intellects of the world
who paved the way for many of the technological developments of modern times,
Nikola Tesla.
words Nikola Tesla are likly to summon up the image of a crackpot rather than
an authentic scientist. Nikola Tesla was possibly the greatest inventor the
world has ever known. He was, without doubt, a genius who is not only credited
with many devices we use today, but is also credited with astonishing, sometimes
world-transforming, devices that are even simply amazing by todays scientific
standards.
Tesla was born at precisely midnight between July 9th and 10th, 1856, in
a small Hungarien village. He was born to his father, a priest, and his mother,
an unschooled but extremely intelligent women. Training for an engineering career,
he attendedthe Technical University of Graz, Austria and was shortly employed in a
government telegraph engineering office in Budapest, where he made his first
invention, a telephone repeater. Tesla sailed to America in 1884, arriving in New
York City with four cents in his pocket, and many great ideas in his head. He first
found employment with a young Thomas Edison in New Jersey, but the two inventors,
were far apart in background and methods. But, because of there differences, Tesla
soon left the employment of Edison, and in May 1885, George Westinghouse, head of
the Westinghouse Electric Company in Pittsburgh, bought the patent rights to many
of Tesla's inventions. After a difficult period, during which Tesla invented but
lost his rights to many inventions, he established his own laboratory in New York
City in 1887, where his inventive mind could be free. In 1895, Tesla discovered
X-rays after hours upon hours of experimentation. Tesla's countless experiments
included work on different power sources and various types of lightning. The Tesla
coil, which he invented in 1891, is widely used today in radio and television sets
and other electronic equipment for wireless communication. That year also marked the
date of Tesla's United States citizenship. Brilliant and eccentric, Tesla was then
at the peak of his inventive powers. He managed to produce new forms of generators,
transformers, he invented the fluorescent light, and he became extremely involved
with the wireless transmission of power.
During the 1880a and 1890's Tesla and Edison became rivals, fighting to
develop there inventions as quickly as possible. In 1915 he was severely disappointed
when a report that he and Edison were to share the Nobel Prize. Edison went back on
a promise to pay him a sum of money for a particular inventions and Tesla broke off
relations at once and went into the inventing business for himself. The biggest
rivaling against Edison was Tesla's development of alternating current which was
very conflicting to Edison's use of electricity, direct current. This great power
struggle between Tesla and Edison's use of electricity practically ended when Tesla's
alternating current won out and was most favored and ruled most practical. Tesla's
alternating current was used to light the Chicago's World Fair. His success was a
factor in winning him the contract to install the first power machinery at Niagara
Falls, which bore Tesla's name and patent numbers. The project carried power to
Buffalo by 1896. In 1898 Tesla announced his invention of a teleautomatic boat guided
by remote control. When skepticism was voiced, Tesla proved his claims for it before
a crowd in Madison Square Garden.
The biggest controversy in Tesla's career is what most popularizes his
name today, this controversy is the fact that Tesla made hundreds of inventions
and discoveries that was simply amazing. Many people have called tesla "a man out
of his time" because his astonishing experiments. In Colorado Springs, where he
stayed from May 1899 until early 1900, Tesla made what he regarded as his most
important discovery, terrestrial stationary waves. By this discovery he proved
that the earth could be used as a conductor and would be as responsive as a tuning
fork to electrical vibrations of a certain pitch. He also lighted 200 lamps without
wires from a distance of 25 miles and created man-made lightning, producing flashes
measuring 135 feet . He was fond of creating neighborhood-threatening electrical
storms in his apartment laboratory and once nearly knocked down a tall building
by attaching a mysterious "black box" to its side. He claimed he could have destroyed
the entire planet with a similar device. Caustic criticism greeted his speculations
concerning communication with other planets, his assertions that he could split the
earth like an apple, and his claim to having invented a death ray capable of
destroying 10,000 airplanes, 250 miles distant. Because of a lack of funds, his
ideas remained in his notebooks, which are still examined by engineers for
unexplored clues. Many of these were eventually inherited by Tesla's nephew, and later
housed in the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. However, a major portion
of his notes were impounded by the US Government, and very few of those have surfaced
today. And because he kept so few notes, to this day we can only guess at the
details of many of the fantastic scientific projects that he occupied. Many questions
have raised concerning his confiscated notes, although, the government regards
some as never existed and declared others as "lost". Was he working on particle
weapons and cloaking devices for the United States Government when he died? Was
Reagan's Strategic Defense program known as "starwars" the result of secret research
based on Tesla's discoveries half a century before?
Nikola Tesla allowed himself only a few close friends. Among them were
the writers Robert Underwood Johnson, Mark Twain, and Francis Marion Crawford. In
his later years, Tesla was alone with only his inventions and calculations, although
he did bred pigeons later in life, who he gave all the affection to that he was
unable to give human beings. Telsa's name holds over 700 patents. Tesla died
privately and peacefully at 87 on January 7, 1943 New York hotel
room from no
apparent cause in particular. Hundreds filed into New York City's Cathedral of
St.John for his funeral services, and a flood of messages acknowledged the loss of
a great genius. Three Nobel Prize winners in physics (Millikan, Compton, and W.H.
Barton) addressed their tributes. One of the outstanding intellects of the world
who paved the way for many of the technological developments of modern times,
Nikola Tesla.
Newtons Method A Computer Project
Newton's Method: A Computer Project
Newton's Method is used to find the root of an equation provided that the function f[x] is equal to zero. Newton Method is an equation created before the days of calculators and was
used to find approximate roots to numbers. The roots of the function are where the function crosses the x axis. The basic principle behind Newton's Method is that the root can be found by subtracting the
function divided by its derivative from the initial guess of the root.
Newtons Method worked well because an initial guess was given to put into the equation. This is important because a wrong initial guess may give you the wrong root for the function.
With Mathematica, a program for Newton's method can be produced and a graph of the function can be made. From the graph, the a good initial guess can be made.
Although Newton's Method works to find roots for many functions, it does have its disadvantages. The root sometimes cannot be found by using Newton's Method. The reason it
sometimes cannot be found is because when the function is equal to zero, there is no slope to the tangent line.
As seen in experimentation's, it is important to select an initial guess close to the root because some functions have multiple roots. Failure to choose an initial value that is close to the root
could result in finding a the wrong root or wasting a lot of time doing multiple iterations while getting close to the actual root.
On some occasions, the program cannot find a root to an initial guess that is placed into the program. In some instances Mathmatica could not find the root to the function, like if it is a
parabola with its vertex is placed right on the y axis with its roots an equal distance away in both directions. In a case like this, the computer could not decide which root to work towards so it gave an
indeterminate answer.
Although Newton's Method does have its disadvantages, it is very effective for finding the roots of most equations. The advantages definitely outweigh the slight disadvantages, and that is
why it is still used to this day.
Newton's Method is used to find the root of an equation provided that the function f[x] is equal to zero. Newton Method is an equation created before the days of calculators and was
used to find approximate roots to numbers. The roots of the function are where the function crosses the x axis. The basic principle behind Newton's Method is that the root can be found by subtracting the
function divided by its derivative from the initial guess of the root.
Newtons Method worked well because an initial guess was given to put into the equation. This is important because a wrong initial guess may give you the wrong root for the function.
With Mathematica, a program for Newton's method can be produced and a graph of the function can be made. From the graph, the a good initial guess can be made.
Although Newton's Method works to find roots for many functions, it does have its disadvantages. The root sometimes cannot be found by using Newton's Method. The reason it
sometimes cannot be found is because when the function is equal to zero, there is no slope to the tangent line.
As seen in experimentation's, it is important to select an initial guess close to the root because some functions have multiple roots. Failure to choose an initial value that is close to the root
could result in finding a the wrong root or wasting a lot of time doing multiple iterations while getting close to the actual root.
On some occasions, the program cannot find a root to an initial guess that is placed into the program. In some instances Mathmatica could not find the root to the function, like if it is a
parabola with its vertex is placed right on the y axis with its roots an equal distance away in both directions. In a case like this, the computer could not decide which root to work towards so it gave an
indeterminate answer.
Although Newton's Method does have its disadvantages, it is very effective for finding the roots of most equations. The advantages definitely outweigh the slight disadvantages, and that is
why it is still used to this day.
Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation
Gravity if one of the four fundamental forces in the universe. Though the fundamental principles of it eluded scientists until Sir Isaac Newton was able to mathematically describe it in 1687 (Eddington 93). Gravity plays a serious part in everyday actions as it keeps everything on the ground; without gravity everything would be immobile unless a force was applied (then it would move infinitely because there would be no force to stop it).
Perhaps, the best place to start then would be with such a simple item as an apple (after all it is what "sparked" Newton's creativity). The apple is one of the two curiosities (the other being the moon) that led Newton to discover The Law of Universal Gravitation in 1666 (Eddington 93). As Newton later wrote, it is the story of the sight of an apple falling to the ground (he was resting at Woolsthorpe because of the plague at Cambridge) that caused Newton to wonder if this same force was what held the moon in place (Gamow 41).
Newton knew that an object fell to the earth at a rate of about 9.8 meters (32 feet) per second second as pointed out by Galileo. Thus "the apple that fell from the tree" fell to Earth at about this rate. For the first basic explanation of this we will assume a linear plane, one in which all forces act in only one direction. Therefore when the apple fell it went straight towards the center of the earth (accelerating at about 9.8 meters per second second). Newton then figured that the same force that pulled the apple to Earth also pulls the moon to the earth. But what force keeps the moon from flying into the earth or the earth flying into the sun (Edwards 493)?
To better understand this, one other aspect must first be understood. Galileo showed that all objects fall to the earth at the same rate (the classic cannonball and feather proved this). But why? If a piano and a saxophone were both dropped from the top of the Empire State Building then they would both slam into the ground at the same rate. Newton realized then that the moon and the apple were both being pulled towards Earth at the same rate but yet the moon was the only one who resisted the force and stayed in its elliptical orbit (Eddington 94).
Newton's Third Law of Motion says that every force exerted by one object on another is equal to a force, but opposite in direction, exerted be the second object on the first (every reaction has an equal but opposite reaction). So the force of the earth pulling the apple to the ground is proportionally the same as the force the apple exerts back on the earth.
Now Johannes Kepler lived some forty-five years before Isaac Newton. And he showed that the orbits of the planets in our solar system were elliptical. When the time of Newton came around he mathematically proved that, if Kepler's First Law was true, then the force on a planet varied inversely with the square of the distance between the planet and the sun. He did this using Kepler's Third Law (Zitzewitz 160). The distance in this formula is from the center of the masses and is the average distance over their entire period. It is also important to note that the force acted in the direction of this line (an important factor when dealing with vectors) (Zitzewitz 160).
Figure 1
Newton, confident that his idea of all objects exerting a force back on Earth, devised a formula for Universal Gravitation. It is important to note that Newton was not the first to think of Universal Gravitation, he was just the first one to make considerable and remarkable proofs for it based on mathematical explanations. He said that if force is relative to the mass of an object and it's acceleration then the force between two objects must also be the same. Thus he came up with the first part of the equation. Also, as he had proved earlier using Kepler's Third Law of Motion, that the force between two objects is inversely proportional to their distances squared (an inverse square law), then that must also be part of the Universal Gravitation equation. Thus we know that the two masses and the distance are related to the force; and because the distance is inversely proportional then the product of the masses divided by the distance between their centers squared must equal the force between the two objects (Zitzewitz 161).
Now earlier, Newton had proved that the force on an object was proportional to an object's mass and its acceleration. And the equation that he had formulated so far did not include anything that would resemble the acceleration. Thus he knew that a gravitational constant must be present and that it should be the same throughout all of the universe. However, due to scientific limitations he was never able to figure out the exact value of this constant (Zitzewitz 161).
Figure 2
One hundred years later, though, an young engineer by the name of Cavendish devised a complex apparatus that was able to measure this gravitational constant. Basically by using very sensitive telescopes and known angles he was able to determine the distance one ball moved another ball. This is often known as "weighing the earth" (Zitzewitz 162-163).
The effects of Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation were varied; but the most common use for his law was the prediction of several planets beyond Jupiter and Saturn. In 1830, it appeared that Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation had not been correct because the orbit of Saturn did not follow his law. Some astronomers thought that the force of an undiscovered planet may be changing its course and in 1845 a couple of scientists at the Berlin Observatory began searching for this hidden planet. It did not take very long. The massive planet now known as Neptune was found on the first night of searching (Zitzewitz 164).
Perhaps one of the most key things about any theory of gravity prior to Einstein was the fact that none of them proposed the origin of gravity. Newton's law always proved to be true in the common world but did not explain the source of the force (Eddington 95). Albert Einstein proposed his Theory of Gravity in his General Theory of Relativity. In this he said that space was a three dimensional plane and that masses curved this plane in one way or another (Eddington 95). Thus a massive object would cause a large "hole" and smaller objects would "orbit" it. It is interesting to note that in either case, Newton's or Einstein's law, both prove to be true in the common world. Massive universal objects, such as black holes, are an exception but that's another story in itself (Edwards 498).
Works Cited
Zitzewitz, Paul W., Robert F. Neff, and Mark Davids. (1992). Physics: Principles and Problems.
Peoria, Illinois: Glencoe.
Gamow, George. (1962). Gravity: Classic and Modern Views. Garden City, New York:
Anchor Books.
Eddington, Sir Arthur. (1987). Space, Time, & Gravitation: An Outline of the General
Relativity Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Edwards, Paul. (Ed.) (1967). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York, New York:
MacMillan.
Gravity if one of the four fundamental forces in the universe. Though the fundamental principles of it eluded scientists until Sir Isaac Newton was able to mathematically describe it in 1687 (Eddington 93). Gravity plays a serious part in everyday actions as it keeps everything on the ground; without gravity everything would be immobile unless a force was applied (then it would move infinitely because there would be no force to stop it).
Perhaps, the best place to start then would be with such a simple item as an apple (after all it is what "sparked" Newton's creativity). The apple is one of the two curiosities (the other being the moon) that led Newton to discover The Law of Universal Gravitation in 1666 (Eddington 93). As Newton later wrote, it is the story of the sight of an apple falling to the ground (he was resting at Woolsthorpe because of the plague at Cambridge) that caused Newton to wonder if this same force was what held the moon in place (Gamow 41).
Newton knew that an object fell to the earth at a rate of about 9.8 meters (32 feet) per second second as pointed out by Galileo. Thus "the apple that fell from the tree" fell to Earth at about this rate. For the first basic explanation of this we will assume a linear plane, one in which all forces act in only one direction. Therefore when the apple fell it went straight towards the center of the earth (accelerating at about 9.8 meters per second second). Newton then figured that the same force that pulled the apple to Earth also pulls the moon to the earth. But what force keeps the moon from flying into the earth or the earth flying into the sun (Edwards 493)?
To better understand this, one other aspect must first be understood. Galileo showed that all objects fall to the earth at the same rate (the classic cannonball and feather proved this). But why? If a piano and a saxophone were both dropped from the top of the Empire State Building then they would both slam into the ground at the same rate. Newton realized then that the moon and the apple were both being pulled towards Earth at the same rate but yet the moon was the only one who resisted the force and stayed in its elliptical orbit (Eddington 94).
Newton's Third Law of Motion says that every force exerted by one object on another is equal to a force, but opposite in direction, exerted be the second object on the first (every reaction has an equal but opposite reaction). So the force of the earth pulling the apple to the ground is proportionally the same as the force the apple exerts back on the earth.
Now Johannes Kepler lived some forty-five years before Isaac Newton. And he showed that the orbits of the planets in our solar system were elliptical. When the time of Newton came around he mathematically proved that, if Kepler's First Law was true, then the force on a planet varied inversely with the square of the distance between the planet and the sun. He did this using Kepler's Third Law (Zitzewitz 160). The distance in this formula is from the center of the masses and is the average distance over their entire period. It is also important to note that the force acted in the direction of this line (an important factor when dealing with vectors) (Zitzewitz 160).
Figure 1
Newton, confident that his idea of all objects exerting a force back on Earth, devised a formula for Universal Gravitation. It is important to note that Newton was not the first to think of Universal Gravitation, he was just the first one to make considerable and remarkable proofs for it based on mathematical explanations. He said that if force is relative to the mass of an object and it's acceleration then the force between two objects must also be the same. Thus he came up with the first part of the equation. Also, as he had proved earlier using Kepler's Third Law of Motion, that the force between two objects is inversely proportional to their distances squared (an inverse square law), then that must also be part of the Universal Gravitation equation. Thus we know that the two masses and the distance are related to the force; and because the distance is inversely proportional then the product of the masses divided by the distance between their centers squared must equal the force between the two objects (Zitzewitz 161).
Now earlier, Newton had proved that the force on an object was proportional to an object's mass and its acceleration. And the equation that he had formulated so far did not include anything that would resemble the acceleration. Thus he knew that a gravitational constant must be present and that it should be the same throughout all of the universe. However, due to scientific limitations he was never able to figure out the exact value of this constant (Zitzewitz 161).
Figure 2
One hundred years later, though, an young engineer by the name of Cavendish devised a complex apparatus that was able to measure this gravitational constant. Basically by using very sensitive telescopes and known angles he was able to determine the distance one ball moved another ball. This is often known as "weighing the earth" (Zitzewitz 162-163).
The effects of Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation were varied; but the most common use for his law was the prediction of several planets beyond Jupiter and Saturn. In 1830, it appeared that Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation had not been correct because the orbit of Saturn did not follow his law. Some astronomers thought that the force of an undiscovered planet may be changing its course and in 1845 a couple of scientists at the Berlin Observatory began searching for this hidden planet. It did not take very long. The massive planet now known as Neptune was found on the first night of searching (Zitzewitz 164).
Perhaps one of the most key things about any theory of gravity prior to Einstein was the fact that none of them proposed the origin of gravity. Newton's law always proved to be true in the common world but did not explain the source of the force (Eddington 95). Albert Einstein proposed his Theory of Gravity in his General Theory of Relativity. In this he said that space was a three dimensional plane and that masses curved this plane in one way or another (Eddington 95). Thus a massive object would cause a large "hole" and smaller objects would "orbit" it. It is interesting to note that in either case, Newton's or Einstein's law, both prove to be true in the common world. Massive universal objects, such as black holes, are an exception but that's another story in itself (Edwards 498).
Works Cited
Zitzewitz, Paul W., Robert F. Neff, and Mark Davids. (1992). Physics: Principles and Problems.
Peoria, Illinois: Glencoe.
Gamow, George. (1962). Gravity: Classic and Modern Views. Garden City, New York:
Anchor Books.
Eddington, Sir Arthur. (1987). Space, Time, & Gravitation: An Outline of the General
Relativity Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Edwards, Paul. (Ed.) (1967). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York, New York:
MacMillan.
Newtons First Law of Motion
Newton's First Law of Motion
Sir Isaac Newton was in my mind one of the greatest people who ever lived. He was born in 1642 and died in 1727. He formulated three laws of motion that help explain some very important principles of physics. Some of Newton's laws could only be proved under certain conditions; actual observations and experiments made sure that they are true. Newton's laws tell us how objects move by describing the relationship between force and motion. I am going to try to explain his first law in more simple terms.
Newton's first law of motion states: A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless an unbalanced force acts on it. When a body is at rest or in uniform motion this is called inertia.
Let's say that someone parks a car on a flat road and forgets to put the vehicle into park. The car should stay in that spot. This state of being is called inertia. All of a sudden the wind picks up or some kid crashes into the car with a bike. Both the wind and the kid's bike crashing into the bike are unbalanced forces. The car should start to move. The car might accelerate to two miles per hour. Now we would all assume that the car would come to a stop sometime. We assume this because it is true. It is true because there is friction between the tires and the road. The car now has inertia in uniform motion. Since there is friction, the car cannot keep moving forever because friction is an unbalanced force acting upon the tires.
What if there was not any friction? The car would keep going forever. That is if there was not any wind or a hill or any unbalanced force acting upon the car. This is rather weird just to think about. Because this usually would not happen in our customary world today. You just would not see a car go on forever.
An easy experiment to demonstrate this law is to take a glass jar and put an index or a heavier than paper card over the top of the glass jar. Next, place a coin on the index card. Be sure that the index card is strong enough to support the penny without bending itself. Now place your finger about three centimeters away from the card and flick the card out from underneath the coin. The coin should fall into the glass jar. The inertia of the coin keeps it in place even when the card is moving underneath it.
Sir Isaac Newton was in my mind one of the greatest people who ever lived. He was born in 1642 and died in 1727. He formulated three laws of motion that help explain some very important principles of physics. Some of Newton's laws could only be proved under certain conditions; actual observations and experiments made sure that they are true. Newton's laws tell us how objects move by describing the relationship between force and motion. I am going to try to explain his first law in more simple terms.
Newton's first law of motion states: A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless an unbalanced force acts on it. When a body is at rest or in uniform motion this is called inertia.
Let's say that someone parks a car on a flat road and forgets to put the vehicle into park. The car should stay in that spot. This state of being is called inertia. All of a sudden the wind picks up or some kid crashes into the car with a bike. Both the wind and the kid's bike crashing into the bike are unbalanced forces. The car should start to move. The car might accelerate to two miles per hour. Now we would all assume that the car would come to a stop sometime. We assume this because it is true. It is true because there is friction between the tires and the road. The car now has inertia in uniform motion. Since there is friction, the car cannot keep moving forever because friction is an unbalanced force acting upon the tires.
What if there was not any friction? The car would keep going forever. That is if there was not any wind or a hill or any unbalanced force acting upon the car. This is rather weird just to think about. Because this usually would not happen in our customary world today. You just would not see a car go on forever.
An easy experiment to demonstrate this law is to take a glass jar and put an index or a heavier than paper card over the top of the glass jar. Next, place a coin on the index card. Be sure that the index card is strong enough to support the penny without bending itself. Now place your finger about three centimeters away from the card and flick the card out from underneath the coin. The coin should fall into the glass jar. The inertia of the coin keeps it in place even when the card is moving underneath it.
Memory
Memory
Memory is the vital tool in learning and thinking . We all use memory in our everyday lives. Think about the first time you ever tied your shoe laces or rode a bike; those are all forms of memory , long term or short. If you do not remember anything from the past , you would never learn; thus unable to process. Without memory you would simply be exposed to new and unfamiliar things . Life would be absent and bare of the richness of it happy or sorrow. Many scientists are still unsure of all that happens and what and how memory works. They are certain , though , that it is involvement of chemical changes in the brain which changes the physical structure (Loftus p. 392). It has been found after many research , that new memory is stored in a section of the brain called the hippocampus (Loftus p. 392). Memory is acquired by a series of solidifying events , but more research is still needed to discover and fully understand (Loftus p. 392).
Memory is broken down into three systems or categories . These different systems are sensory memory , short-term , and long-term memory. Sensory memory is the shortest and less extensive of the others. It can hold memory for only an instance (Memory p. 32). Suppose you see a tree , the image of the tree is briefly held by the sensory memory and quickly disappears unless you transfer it to your short-term memory (Rhodes p. 130). The next level is called short-term memory. The image or fact can be held as long as the brain is actively thinking about it (Loftus p. 392). For example , if you look up a number in the phone book and repeat it to yourself until you dial it , that is a form of short-term memory. Short-term memory lasts roughly half a minute unless it is transferred to long-term memory . Long-term memory is the last and final stage of memory . It is so large and limitless it can hold nearly anything (Loftus p. 392). Long-term memory can hold something that is only a few moments old to many , many years.
Memory can be measured in three ways . These techniques include recall, recognition, and relearning (Loftus p. 393). Suppose someone asks you who was at a party . When you try to list everyone you saw , that is known as recall. The other form is recognition , which contains recall. For example, the person asking you a list of names. The list contains names of people who were at the party and names of those who were not at the party. " In relearning you would memorize the guest list after apparently forgetting it " (Loftus p. 393).
There are many questions to why people forget . Scientists still do not know exactly how people forget . Not surprisingly , people forget more and more as time progresses. The chief explanations for forgetting include interference, retrieval, failure , motivated forgetting, and constructive processes (Loftus p. 393). " Interference occurs when the remembering of certain learned material blocks the memory of other learned material " (Loftus p. 393). Retrieval failure is the inability to recall material or data that has been stored (Loftus p. 393). An example of this is when you try to think of a certain date or number , but fail to remember . Later it will come naturally without any effort. The third reason is a loss of memory caused by conscious or unconscious desires called motivated forgetting (Stevenson p. 393). Scientists believe that many of us forget in purpose because we choose to. Motivated forgetting is closely related to a process motivated by the needs and wishes of the individual called regression (Memory p. 33). A very good example is when people gamble. When people gamble they choose to remember all the times that they have won , and not the times that they lose. The last explanation of forgetting is constructive process. This is involves the unconscious invention of false memories . Memories became systematically distorted or changed over a long period of time (Memory p.33). When people try to remember a certain fact that has occurred a long time ago , the individual will tend to fill in the gaps with information that is not true .
There are many ways to improve memory. Not surprisingly, practice makes perfect and the way people use the devices include rhymes, clues, mental pictures , and other methods (Rhodes p. 130). Another method provides clues by means of an acronym , a word formed from the first letters or syllables of the words (Rhodes p.132). A mental picture can be provided by the key-word method , which is particularly useful in learning foreign words (Rhodes p. 135). Mental pictures can also be used to remember names. When you meet a person for the first time, pick out a physical feature of the individual and relate it to his or her name . To use mnemonic devices , however, you can use it at anytime you wish. A good way to ensure remembering a certain part of information is to study it over and over so you know it perfectly . The more you thoroughly study something, the chances are, the more lasting it will be.
There are times when uncommon memory conditions occur. Sometimes you of people having photographic memory. No one really has a photographic memory , but there are many people who have eidetic memory (Loftus p. 394). Eidetic memory is a picture that remains in a person's mind for a few second after the picture has already disappeared ( Loftus p. 394). People who have this imagery can look at a scene and describe it , though it is not exactly accurate . It is rare to have this way of remembering a picture . Scientists say that only about 5 to 10 percent of children have this (Loftus p. 394). Even the children who do have this lose it as they grow up. A more serious result is called amnesia . This can result in disease , injury, or emotional shock (Loftus p. 394). Many cases of amnesia, even more severe ones are usually temporary and do not last very long. The more severe the injury the greater the loss of memory . Football players and other sport players have the greatest chance of being affected. Someone who suffers brain damage from a car accident might lose months of years of memory . In general , memories are less clear and detailed than perceptions , but occasionally a remembered image is complete in every detail .
Memory is the vital tool in learning and thinking . We all use memory in our everyday lives. Think about the first time you ever tied your shoe laces or rode a bike; those are all forms of memory , long term or short. If you do not remember anything from the past , you would never learn; thus unable to process. Without memory you would simply be exposed to new and unfamiliar things . Life would be absent and bare of the richness of it happy or sorrow. Many scientists are still unsure of all that happens and what and how memory works. They are certain , though , that it is involvement of chemical changes in the brain which changes the physical structure (Loftus p. 392). It has been found after many research , that new memory is stored in a section of the brain called the hippocampus (Loftus p. 392). Memory is acquired by a series of solidifying events , but more research is still needed to discover and fully understand (Loftus p. 392).
Memory is broken down into three systems or categories . These different systems are sensory memory , short-term , and long-term memory. Sensory memory is the shortest and less extensive of the others. It can hold memory for only an instance (Memory p. 32). Suppose you see a tree , the image of the tree is briefly held by the sensory memory and quickly disappears unless you transfer it to your short-term memory (Rhodes p. 130). The next level is called short-term memory. The image or fact can be held as long as the brain is actively thinking about it (Loftus p. 392). For example , if you look up a number in the phone book and repeat it to yourself until you dial it , that is a form of short-term memory. Short-term memory lasts roughly half a minute unless it is transferred to long-term memory . Long-term memory is the last and final stage of memory . It is so large and limitless it can hold nearly anything (Loftus p. 392). Long-term memory can hold something that is only a few moments old to many , many years.
Memory can be measured in three ways . These techniques include recall, recognition, and relearning (Loftus p. 393). Suppose someone asks you who was at a party . When you try to list everyone you saw , that is known as recall. The other form is recognition , which contains recall. For example, the person asking you a list of names. The list contains names of people who were at the party and names of those who were not at the party. " In relearning you would memorize the guest list after apparently forgetting it " (Loftus p. 393).
There are many questions to why people forget . Scientists still do not know exactly how people forget . Not surprisingly , people forget more and more as time progresses. The chief explanations for forgetting include interference, retrieval, failure , motivated forgetting, and constructive processes (Loftus p. 393). " Interference occurs when the remembering of certain learned material blocks the memory of other learned material " (Loftus p. 393). Retrieval failure is the inability to recall material or data that has been stored (Loftus p. 393). An example of this is when you try to think of a certain date or number , but fail to remember . Later it will come naturally without any effort. The third reason is a loss of memory caused by conscious or unconscious desires called motivated forgetting (Stevenson p. 393). Scientists believe that many of us forget in purpose because we choose to. Motivated forgetting is closely related to a process motivated by the needs and wishes of the individual called regression (Memory p. 33). A very good example is when people gamble. When people gamble they choose to remember all the times that they have won , and not the times that they lose. The last explanation of forgetting is constructive process. This is involves the unconscious invention of false memories . Memories became systematically distorted or changed over a long period of time (Memory p.33). When people try to remember a certain fact that has occurred a long time ago , the individual will tend to fill in the gaps with information that is not true .
There are many ways to improve memory. Not surprisingly, practice makes perfect and the way people use the devices include rhymes, clues, mental pictures , and other methods (Rhodes p. 130). Another method provides clues by means of an acronym , a word formed from the first letters or syllables of the words (Rhodes p.132). A mental picture can be provided by the key-word method , which is particularly useful in learning foreign words (Rhodes p. 135). Mental pictures can also be used to remember names. When you meet a person for the first time, pick out a physical feature of the individual and relate it to his or her name . To use mnemonic devices , however, you can use it at anytime you wish. A good way to ensure remembering a certain part of information is to study it over and over so you know it perfectly . The more you thoroughly study something, the chances are, the more lasting it will be.
There are times when uncommon memory conditions occur. Sometimes you of people having photographic memory. No one really has a photographic memory , but there are many people who have eidetic memory (Loftus p. 394). Eidetic memory is a picture that remains in a person's mind for a few second after the picture has already disappeared ( Loftus p. 394). People who have this imagery can look at a scene and describe it , though it is not exactly accurate . It is rare to have this way of remembering a picture . Scientists say that only about 5 to 10 percent of children have this (Loftus p. 394). Even the children who do have this lose it as they grow up. A more serious result is called amnesia . This can result in disease , injury, or emotional shock (Loftus p. 394). Many cases of amnesia, even more severe ones are usually temporary and do not last very long. The more severe the injury the greater the loss of memory . Football players and other sport players have the greatest chance of being affected. Someone who suffers brain damage from a car accident might lose months of years of memory . In general , memories are less clear and detailed than perceptions , but occasionally a remembered image is complete in every detail .
Magnatism
Magnatism & the Things We THINK We Know About It!
By Austin D. Ritchie
Magnatism is a wonderous natural phenomanon. Since days before scientific
discoveries were even written down the world has been playing with the theories of
magnatism. In these three labs we delt with some of the same ideas which have pondered
over for long before any of us were around. In these conclusions we will take a look at
these ideas and find out what exactly we have learned.
To understand the results of the lab we must first go over the facts about
magnatism on the atomic level that we have discovered. The way magnatism works is
this: magnatism is all based on the simple principle of electrons and there behavior.
Electrons move around the atom in a specific path. As they do this they are also rotating
on there own axis. This movement causes an attraction or repultion from the electrons
that are unpaird. They are moving in two directions though causing a negative and
positive charge. In the case of magnatism though we find that these elements have a lot
of unpaired electrons, in the case of iron, Fe, there are four. What happens then in the
case of a natural magnet the unpaired electrons line up or the magnet in a specific
mannor. That is all the atoms with unpaired electrons moving in a direction which
causes a certain charge are lined up on one side and all the atoms with the opposite
charge move to the other side. The atoms then start to cancel each other out as they
approach the center of the magnet. This all happens at the currie point where these
atoms are free to move and then when cooled and the metel becomes solid the atoms can
no longer move (barely) causing a "permanent" magnet (as in the diagram on the next
page). This same principle can be applied to a piece of metal that has been sitting next to
a magnatized piece of metel in that over the long time they are togather the very slow
moving atoms in the metal situate in the same fassion also creating a magnet. Now that
we know the basics lets begin with the experiments.
Part one of the lab started us on our journey. In this part we took an apparatus
with wire wrapped around it put a compass in the middle of the wire wraps. The setup
was arranged so that the wraps were running parralel with the magnetic field of the earth,
that is they were north-south. With this setup we were able to force a current through the
coils of the apparatus by means of a 6V battery and this created a magnetic field. This is
because the movement of electrons (which electrisity is) causes the presents of a
magnetic field. Now that we know we have a magnetic field running around the compass
we cbegan the experiment. What we did was take the magnetic field of the coils
begining with one coil and continued until we had five. What we learned from this is
that with every extra coil we placed around the compass the motion that the interaction of
the two magnetic fields caused increased. These magnetic feilds being the earth's and the
coils. What this means is that not only does electicity create a magnetic field but that
there is a direct relationship between the amount of current and the strength of the
magnetic field it creates. This leads us to the relationship: Bc µ I and then by figuring
in the constant we find that we can derive our first equation Bc = k I. This can also be
supported by the data we collected in the lab when we see that as the measured currents
went up the amount of motion went up which mathmaticly indicates that the magnetic
field strength went up.
But we don't only find this equation but we also find that as the current (or more
so the magnetic field it creates) acts upon the initial magnetic field of the earth we get the
motion in the compass. This leads us to the first part of our left hand rule. The left hand
rule for a straight conductor says that when the lines of flux are created they repel from
the north end of the compass in a certain direction (depending on which way the charge
is moving). This can be explained by our experiment's data in part one also because as
we introduced the current to the earth's magnetic field we found that it created the motion
on the compass. This all agrees with the left hand rule.
Lastly, we found in this part of the lab that magnetic field, represented by B, is a
vector. We can say this because we know that a vector is anything that has both a
magnatude and a direction. Now we need to prove that B has these features. This can be
done by looking back on our lab and remembering that as we found the value for B it was
the strength of the magnetic field. Now strength indicates that there is a magnatude to
the field, thus giving us the first part of a vector. To finalize the theory we look back at
the lab and find that as we changed the flow of the electrons in the coils the motion on
the compass changed also. What this tells us is that the magnetic field of the current
passing through the wire has a direction to it also. Knowing this we can deduce that B is
infact a vector. A second, less definite, manor to find that B is a vector is to recall that in
the equation B = k I we have one definite vector in the I (from earlier labs) and since we
know that you much have a vector on each side of the equation in order for it to balance
out and we know that k is a constant (therefore not a vector) the only possiblility is that B
is infact a vector.
In addition to these "required" conclusions we also found, as stated earlier, that
when you have current you also have a magnetic field. This is important because it gives
us another means in which to create magnetic fields other than the use of "natural"
magnets. But to put this theory into mathmatical application we can use the formula of
Fb = B I L and say that since we know it takes two magnetic fields to cause motion
(represented in this equation by F) and we know that B is in itself a magnectic field we
can deduce that the value for "I L" is infact the value for and thus equivilant to a second
magnetic field.
The next lab we conducted consisted of a factory made coil, an ammeter to find
the value of the current we were creating and a bar magnet to act as a magnetic field.
What we did was thrust the bar magnet N end first through one of the sides of the coil
and found that this created a current. This happened because what we were actually
doing was taking one magnetic field and putting it to motion thus creating antother
magnetic field, which in this case happened to be an electical current. This experiment
once agains deals with, obeys and exemplifies the left hand rule, but this time for a
celenoid. What that means is that as we were thrusting the magnets N end into the coil
we induced a positive amount of current simply because of the direction in which the
LHR tells us that the current should go. Now the converse is also true in this case. What
that means is that when you either thrust the N end of the magnet out of the coil or thrust
the S end into the coil we find that a negative amount of current is invoked.
Our next conclusion has to deal with a combonation of theories being Lenz's law
and induction. Now we know from above that as we thrust the N end of the magnet into
the coil we achieved a positive current and with a S end a negative current what this
shows us is that there is conservation of energy here. Conservation of energy is a main
part of Lenz's law. The reason we can say that this is conservation of energy is because
when a charge was induced it is the opposite (pos/neg) of the the current that it was
induced by. We can further Lenz's law by remembering that the faster we thrust the
magnet into the coil the more current that was produced. This also shows us the
principle of conservation of energy because the more energy put into the system the more
current we got back out. This theory can be easily concluded by saying that only when
you have perpendicular motion of a magentic field can a current be produced. All these
currents and fields are created by what is called induction. What this means is that we
are not actually touching the physical objects togather (contact) but instead just placing
them near each other so that their magnetic fields are "touching" and the motion or force
can result.
That moves us onto the last part of the lab where we used the same coil from part
two and hooked it up in a system (pictured on next page) where we could measure the
current strength and have our teeter-totter with an electric current running through it
within the lines of the magnetic field of the coil. What we are able to do with this setup is
run a current through the system creating a pair of magnetic fields on the coil and the
loop (on the end of the teeter-totter). The diagram below shows the setup that was used
along with a vector diagram. What this tells us is that the force, Fb or magnetic force, on
the end of the TT that is inside the coil is infact a vector. Once again that means that it
has both magnatude and direction. Now we learned last term that force is always a
verctor and therefore can assume that this too is a vector but there is even more evidence
to support this. You see the force that is acting upon the end of the TT that is outside the
coil is being acted on by the force of gravity. This gravitational force, Fg on the diagram,
has the value Fb * m, where "m" is the mass of the object that is setting on the end of the
TT. Since we know that gravitational force is a vector and we see that the TT is balanced
out we know that the forces acting upon both sides of the TT must be equal, otherwise
one side would be lowered like in the next diagram (b). Here, in b, we see the TT before
the current, and therefore the magnetic fields acting on eachother causing magnetic force,
has been introduced to the system. As we see the TT is now unballanced. Now look
back at the first diagram and notice that the vectors of Fb and the value of Fg * m are
equal. Since we massed the "weight" we used to uniformity and we know that
gravitational force is 9.8 m/s2 we then know the value of Fb as well as the fact Fb is
indeed a vector that is ofsetting the gravitational force vector. We know this because if
Fb was not a vector the TT would never balance. We also notice that mathmatically
there is a relationship. That is that the units for the value of Fb are kg*m/s2 which we
know to be velocity and therefore a vector as velocity is.
This leads us to the first of three very important equations. This equation,
Fb = Bc * I * Lloop
then gives us the experimental value for Bc which is important because this could not be
measured directly in our lab. We find this value now very useful because it does not
depend on any of the factory specifications for the coil which we prove to not be true
later. This is the most important equation in this section of the lab for that very reason.
This is because now that we know the experimental value of Bc without using the factory
specs we can use that value in the next two equatins to find experimental values for the
factory constants and therefore prove those set values right or wrong.
The next equation,
Bc = k * Ic * Iloop * Lloop
now serves two purposes. One, it allows us to calculate a "factory" value for the
magnetic field, knowing the length of the loop (L), the current through the loop and coil
(I) and the constant (k) from the factory. We do this so that we can compare this value to
our experimental value for Bc and see how close they are. Two, is that you can plug in
the experimental value for Bc and the two I's and the L and find a value for "k" based on
our data. We then compared the two numbers of each to find that in actuallity the factory
and the experiment disagree, but minorly. This could be due to either error on our part or
on the factories but at least lets us know that we are relatively close.
Lastly, we look at the equation,
Bc = u * N * I / L
which does the same basic thing as the previous one does accept in this one we can plug
in all numbers but the number of turns (N) and then solve for the experimental number of
turns. Or we can plug in the factory number of turns and all the rest accept Bc and solve
for that leaving us with another factory value for Bc. Once again we compare these
numbers to the numbers we had previosly and this time we find that the number of turns
on the coil is experimentally less to a great extent and that Bc for this equation is
extreemely different than the ones solved for above. What this told us was that while the
factory value for "k" was relatively close the factory set number of turns is actaully way
off.
All this leads us to the way that the Earth's magnetic field works. We have used
this field in the lab but not defined it. But through our experiment we can make some
conclusions. What we learned combined with the diagrams and researched data that we
acquired shows us that the earth does not have a bar magnet in the middle of it that is
making it attract and repel things like compasses but rather that their is something else
going on. After searching and thinking hard we found that the earth actually has no
magnetic field in it's center but rather that the magnetic pull we feel comes from the
friction (friction induces a current, earlier labs) of the outter layer of molten earth and the
top layer of its' crust and the current then creating a magnetic field as we know occurs.
We can say that there is no charge in the middle because we know that the center of the
earth is extreemly hot and with that it must be above the currie point, where a magnet's
electrons situate and create, when cooled, a magnet. What this means is that it's too hot
for a magnet to possibly exhist at that temperature. We also know that there is no magnet
there because of the simple fact that on the atomic level a magnet cannot exist in a liquid
because of the uniformity a strong magnet requires and the "loosness" of the molecules in
a liquid, that is how free they are to move. Now since we know that the center of the
earth is molten, a liquid, and therefore a magnet cannot exist there. But this doesn't
explain all of what we have learned. We also see that the magnetic "poles" of the earth
are actually not as we think of them. As the next diagram shows the earths poles are
actually made up of a magnetic north and south pole and a geological north and south
pole. But these poles very. The magnetic poles are actually slightly off center to the
geological poles. Along with this we can say that because of the scientists of the past we
actually call the magnetic south pole the north pole and vise-versa. This isn't due to some
phenomanon but rather the fact that when we think of the north pole we think of the
earth's pole that the north end of a compas (or any magnet) is attracted to. This is
actually the south end of the earths magnetic field, explaining this confusion.
All of this was learned on our very difficult trip through the world of the magnet
and now that we have conducted these experiments, done the research, and made these
conclutions we now know that much more about the voo-doo world of the magnet!
By Austin D. Ritchie
Magnatism is a wonderous natural phenomanon. Since days before scientific
discoveries were even written down the world has been playing with the theories of
magnatism. In these three labs we delt with some of the same ideas which have pondered
over for long before any of us were around. In these conclusions we will take a look at
these ideas and find out what exactly we have learned.
To understand the results of the lab we must first go over the facts about
magnatism on the atomic level that we have discovered. The way magnatism works is
this: magnatism is all based on the simple principle of electrons and there behavior.
Electrons move around the atom in a specific path. As they do this they are also rotating
on there own axis. This movement causes an attraction or repultion from the electrons
that are unpaird. They are moving in two directions though causing a negative and
positive charge. In the case of magnatism though we find that these elements have a lot
of unpaired electrons, in the case of iron, Fe, there are four. What happens then in the
case of a natural magnet the unpaired electrons line up or the magnet in a specific
mannor. That is all the atoms with unpaired electrons moving in a direction which
causes a certain charge are lined up on one side and all the atoms with the opposite
charge move to the other side. The atoms then start to cancel each other out as they
approach the center of the magnet. This all happens at the currie point where these
atoms are free to move and then when cooled and the metel becomes solid the atoms can
no longer move (barely) causing a "permanent" magnet (as in the diagram on the next
page). This same principle can be applied to a piece of metal that has been sitting next to
a magnatized piece of metel in that over the long time they are togather the very slow
moving atoms in the metal situate in the same fassion also creating a magnet. Now that
we know the basics lets begin with the experiments.
Part one of the lab started us on our journey. In this part we took an apparatus
with wire wrapped around it put a compass in the middle of the wire wraps. The setup
was arranged so that the wraps were running parralel with the magnetic field of the earth,
that is they were north-south. With this setup we were able to force a current through the
coils of the apparatus by means of a 6V battery and this created a magnetic field. This is
because the movement of electrons (which electrisity is) causes the presents of a
magnetic field. Now that we know we have a magnetic field running around the compass
we cbegan the experiment. What we did was take the magnetic field of the coils
begining with one coil and continued until we had five. What we learned from this is
that with every extra coil we placed around the compass the motion that the interaction of
the two magnetic fields caused increased. These magnetic feilds being the earth's and the
coils. What this means is that not only does electicity create a magnetic field but that
there is a direct relationship between the amount of current and the strength of the
magnetic field it creates. This leads us to the relationship: Bc µ I and then by figuring
in the constant we find that we can derive our first equation Bc = k I. This can also be
supported by the data we collected in the lab when we see that as the measured currents
went up the amount of motion went up which mathmaticly indicates that the magnetic
field strength went up.
But we don't only find this equation but we also find that as the current (or more
so the magnetic field it creates) acts upon the initial magnetic field of the earth we get the
motion in the compass. This leads us to the first part of our left hand rule. The left hand
rule for a straight conductor says that when the lines of flux are created they repel from
the north end of the compass in a certain direction (depending on which way the charge
is moving). This can be explained by our experiment's data in part one also because as
we introduced the current to the earth's magnetic field we found that it created the motion
on the compass. This all agrees with the left hand rule.
Lastly, we found in this part of the lab that magnetic field, represented by B, is a
vector. We can say this because we know that a vector is anything that has both a
magnatude and a direction. Now we need to prove that B has these features. This can be
done by looking back on our lab and remembering that as we found the value for B it was
the strength of the magnetic field. Now strength indicates that there is a magnatude to
the field, thus giving us the first part of a vector. To finalize the theory we look back at
the lab and find that as we changed the flow of the electrons in the coils the motion on
the compass changed also. What this tells us is that the magnetic field of the current
passing through the wire has a direction to it also. Knowing this we can deduce that B is
infact a vector. A second, less definite, manor to find that B is a vector is to recall that in
the equation B = k I we have one definite vector in the I (from earlier labs) and since we
know that you much have a vector on each side of the equation in order for it to balance
out and we know that k is a constant (therefore not a vector) the only possiblility is that B
is infact a vector.
In addition to these "required" conclusions we also found, as stated earlier, that
when you have current you also have a magnetic field. This is important because it gives
us another means in which to create magnetic fields other than the use of "natural"
magnets. But to put this theory into mathmatical application we can use the formula of
Fb = B I L and say that since we know it takes two magnetic fields to cause motion
(represented in this equation by F) and we know that B is in itself a magnectic field we
can deduce that the value for "I L" is infact the value for and thus equivilant to a second
magnetic field.
The next lab we conducted consisted of a factory made coil, an ammeter to find
the value of the current we were creating and a bar magnet to act as a magnetic field.
What we did was thrust the bar magnet N end first through one of the sides of the coil
and found that this created a current. This happened because what we were actually
doing was taking one magnetic field and putting it to motion thus creating antother
magnetic field, which in this case happened to be an electical current. This experiment
once agains deals with, obeys and exemplifies the left hand rule, but this time for a
celenoid. What that means is that as we were thrusting the magnets N end into the coil
we induced a positive amount of current simply because of the direction in which the
LHR tells us that the current should go. Now the converse is also true in this case. What
that means is that when you either thrust the N end of the magnet out of the coil or thrust
the S end into the coil we find that a negative amount of current is invoked.
Our next conclusion has to deal with a combonation of theories being Lenz's law
and induction. Now we know from above that as we thrust the N end of the magnet into
the coil we achieved a positive current and with a S end a negative current what this
shows us is that there is conservation of energy here. Conservation of energy is a main
part of Lenz's law. The reason we can say that this is conservation of energy is because
when a charge was induced it is the opposite (pos/neg) of the the current that it was
induced by. We can further Lenz's law by remembering that the faster we thrust the
magnet into the coil the more current that was produced. This also shows us the
principle of conservation of energy because the more energy put into the system the more
current we got back out. This theory can be easily concluded by saying that only when
you have perpendicular motion of a magentic field can a current be produced. All these
currents and fields are created by what is called induction. What this means is that we
are not actually touching the physical objects togather (contact) but instead just placing
them near each other so that their magnetic fields are "touching" and the motion or force
can result.
That moves us onto the last part of the lab where we used the same coil from part
two and hooked it up in a system (pictured on next page) where we could measure the
current strength and have our teeter-totter with an electric current running through it
within the lines of the magnetic field of the coil. What we are able to do with this setup is
run a current through the system creating a pair of magnetic fields on the coil and the
loop (on the end of the teeter-totter). The diagram below shows the setup that was used
along with a vector diagram. What this tells us is that the force, Fb or magnetic force, on
the end of the TT that is inside the coil is infact a vector. Once again that means that it
has both magnatude and direction. Now we learned last term that force is always a
verctor and therefore can assume that this too is a vector but there is even more evidence
to support this. You see the force that is acting upon the end of the TT that is outside the
coil is being acted on by the force of gravity. This gravitational force, Fg on the diagram,
has the value Fb * m, where "m" is the mass of the object that is setting on the end of the
TT. Since we know that gravitational force is a vector and we see that the TT is balanced
out we know that the forces acting upon both sides of the TT must be equal, otherwise
one side would be lowered like in the next diagram (b). Here, in b, we see the TT before
the current, and therefore the magnetic fields acting on eachother causing magnetic force,
has been introduced to the system. As we see the TT is now unballanced. Now look
back at the first diagram and notice that the vectors of Fb and the value of Fg * m are
equal. Since we massed the "weight" we used to uniformity and we know that
gravitational force is 9.8 m/s2 we then know the value of Fb as well as the fact Fb is
indeed a vector that is ofsetting the gravitational force vector. We know this because if
Fb was not a vector the TT would never balance. We also notice that mathmatically
there is a relationship. That is that the units for the value of Fb are kg*m/s2 which we
know to be velocity and therefore a vector as velocity is.
This leads us to the first of three very important equations. This equation,
Fb = Bc * I * Lloop
then gives us the experimental value for Bc which is important because this could not be
measured directly in our lab. We find this value now very useful because it does not
depend on any of the factory specifications for the coil which we prove to not be true
later. This is the most important equation in this section of the lab for that very reason.
This is because now that we know the experimental value of Bc without using the factory
specs we can use that value in the next two equatins to find experimental values for the
factory constants and therefore prove those set values right or wrong.
The next equation,
Bc = k * Ic * Iloop * Lloop
now serves two purposes. One, it allows us to calculate a "factory" value for the
magnetic field, knowing the length of the loop (L), the current through the loop and coil
(I) and the constant (k) from the factory. We do this so that we can compare this value to
our experimental value for Bc and see how close they are. Two, is that you can plug in
the experimental value for Bc and the two I's and the L and find a value for "k" based on
our data. We then compared the two numbers of each to find that in actuallity the factory
and the experiment disagree, but minorly. This could be due to either error on our part or
on the factories but at least lets us know that we are relatively close.
Lastly, we look at the equation,
Bc = u * N * I / L
which does the same basic thing as the previous one does accept in this one we can plug
in all numbers but the number of turns (N) and then solve for the experimental number of
turns. Or we can plug in the factory number of turns and all the rest accept Bc and solve
for that leaving us with another factory value for Bc. Once again we compare these
numbers to the numbers we had previosly and this time we find that the number of turns
on the coil is experimentally less to a great extent and that Bc for this equation is
extreemely different than the ones solved for above. What this told us was that while the
factory value for "k" was relatively close the factory set number of turns is actaully way
off.
All this leads us to the way that the Earth's magnetic field works. We have used
this field in the lab but not defined it. But through our experiment we can make some
conclusions. What we learned combined with the diagrams and researched data that we
acquired shows us that the earth does not have a bar magnet in the middle of it that is
making it attract and repel things like compasses but rather that their is something else
going on. After searching and thinking hard we found that the earth actually has no
magnetic field in it's center but rather that the magnetic pull we feel comes from the
friction (friction induces a current, earlier labs) of the outter layer of molten earth and the
top layer of its' crust and the current then creating a magnetic field as we know occurs.
We can say that there is no charge in the middle because we know that the center of the
earth is extreemly hot and with that it must be above the currie point, where a magnet's
electrons situate and create, when cooled, a magnet. What this means is that it's too hot
for a magnet to possibly exhist at that temperature. We also know that there is no magnet
there because of the simple fact that on the atomic level a magnet cannot exist in a liquid
because of the uniformity a strong magnet requires and the "loosness" of the molecules in
a liquid, that is how free they are to move. Now since we know that the center of the
earth is molten, a liquid, and therefore a magnet cannot exist there. But this doesn't
explain all of what we have learned. We also see that the magnetic "poles" of the earth
are actually not as we think of them. As the next diagram shows the earths poles are
actually made up of a magnetic north and south pole and a geological north and south
pole. But these poles very. The magnetic poles are actually slightly off center to the
geological poles. Along with this we can say that because of the scientists of the past we
actually call the magnetic south pole the north pole and vise-versa. This isn't due to some
phenomanon but rather the fact that when we think of the north pole we think of the
earth's pole that the north end of a compas (or any magnet) is attracted to. This is
actually the south end of the earths magnetic field, explaining this confusion.
All of this was learned on our very difficult trip through the world of the magnet
and now that we have conducted these experiments, done the research, and made these
conclutions we now know that much more about the voo-doo world of the magnet!
Luminescence of Black Light
The Luminescence of Black Light
Black Light. What is it? It is a portion of the Ultra-Violet Spectrum that is invisible to our eyes. We can
not distinguish it. However, when this radiation impinges on certain materials visible light is emitted and this is
known as "fluorescence." Fluorescence is visible to the human eye, in that it makes an object appear to "glow in
the dark."
There are several sources of ultra-violet light. These sources are: the sun, carbon arcs, mercury arcs, and black
lights. In most cases, the production of ultra-violet light creates a reasonable amount of heat.
Many materials exhibit the peculiar characteristic of giving off light or radiant energy when ultra-violet light is
allowed to fall upon them. This is called luminescence. In most cases, the wave length of the light radiated is longer
than that of the ultra-violet excitation but a few exceptions have been found.
The quantum theory attempts to explain this property by contending that a certain outside excitation
causes an electron to jump from one orbit to another. It is then in an unstable environment causing it to fall back into
its original orbit. This process releases energy, and if it is in the visible part of the spectrum, we have a transient
light phenomenon. Ultra-violet light is an exciting agent which causes luminescence to occur.
There are many materials which exhibit fluorescent characteristics. Many of which are even organic. Teeth,
eyes, some portions of the skin, and even blood exhibit fluorescent qualities. Naturally occurring minerals such as:
agate, calcite, chalcedony, curtisite, fluorite, gypsum, hackmanite, halite, opal scheelite, and willemite, also have
similar characteristics. These materials can be used in industries.
The radiance of ultraviolet light is measured in units called "Angstrom." The intensity of ultraviolet fluorescence
is the greatest between the 5000 and 6000 range. This being the range between the green and yellow hues.
Ultra violet light is not readily visible. It is not visible because certain materials reflect it. Ultra-violet light is
made visible due to the fact that it causes a reaction at the atomic level. When it strikes the atom, some of the
electrons are sent into other orbits. This then creates an unstable situation which causes the electron to fall back
into its place. This process produces energy, and this is what is seen. This discharge of energy is what creates the
"glow" that is seen. I had no idea that light could cause such an strong reaction on something. That something
being an atom is even more profound. Ultraviolet light causes the atom to lose a subatomic particle then regain it,
and give off energy in the form of visible light. This is just amazing.
Black Light. What is it? It is a portion of the Ultra-Violet Spectrum that is invisible to our eyes. We can
not distinguish it. However, when this radiation impinges on certain materials visible light is emitted and this is
known as "fluorescence." Fluorescence is visible to the human eye, in that it makes an object appear to "glow in
the dark."
There are several sources of ultra-violet light. These sources are: the sun, carbon arcs, mercury arcs, and black
lights. In most cases, the production of ultra-violet light creates a reasonable amount of heat.
Many materials exhibit the peculiar characteristic of giving off light or radiant energy when ultra-violet light is
allowed to fall upon them. This is called luminescence. In most cases, the wave length of the light radiated is longer
than that of the ultra-violet excitation but a few exceptions have been found.
The quantum theory attempts to explain this property by contending that a certain outside excitation
causes an electron to jump from one orbit to another. It is then in an unstable environment causing it to fall back into
its original orbit. This process releases energy, and if it is in the visible part of the spectrum, we have a transient
light phenomenon. Ultra-violet light is an exciting agent which causes luminescence to occur.
There are many materials which exhibit fluorescent characteristics. Many of which are even organic. Teeth,
eyes, some portions of the skin, and even blood exhibit fluorescent qualities. Naturally occurring minerals such as:
agate, calcite, chalcedony, curtisite, fluorite, gypsum, hackmanite, halite, opal scheelite, and willemite, also have
similar characteristics. These materials can be used in industries.
The radiance of ultraviolet light is measured in units called "Angstrom." The intensity of ultraviolet fluorescence
is the greatest between the 5000 and 6000 range. This being the range between the green and yellow hues.
Ultra violet light is not readily visible. It is not visible because certain materials reflect it. Ultra-violet light is
made visible due to the fact that it causes a reaction at the atomic level. When it strikes the atom, some of the
electrons are sent into other orbits. This then creates an unstable situation which causes the electron to fall back
into its place. This process produces energy, and this is what is seen. This discharge of energy is what creates the
"glow" that is seen. I had no idea that light could cause such an strong reaction on something. That something
being an atom is even more profound. Ultraviolet light causes the atom to lose a subatomic particle then regain it,
and give off energy in the form of visible light. This is just amazing.
Longwood
In modern engineering, a systematic approach is used in the design, operation, and construction of an object to reach a desired goal. The first step of the process employs what is commonly known as the scientific method. The next step involves forming an interdisciplinary team of specialists from not only the various engineering disciplines, but from other fields whose knowledge may be useful or even necessary to completing the project. This step doesn't apply to our project, due the confined nature of the class. Finally, considerations must be taken into account to ensure that the project is efficient as well as cost effective.
The goal of the MOBOT Project was to design and build a programmable robot. The robot had to complete a series of four movements in four given directions over a distance of at least 6 inches. Power and weight restrictions were applied to ensure the safety of the students and, more importantly, the teacher. As the goals of the project were made clearer, our group began discussing possible ideas for the design. There were some disagreements about whether we should take the electromechanical route or the purely electrical one. And after some deep thought, we all agreed that the mechanical way would be the simplest to build and the most merciful on our pocketbooks. Even though we were coming up with some good ideas, each design seemed to contain some major problems. One of the reoccurring problems dealt with the synchronization of the driver motor and the steering system. Finally the team came up with a design that allowed the drive and steering controls to be independent of one another, but still allowing each one to be linked in time. This design has now become what is known as LONGWOOD.
The Longwood is divided into two main parts: 1)motion system and 2)logic board. As the engineer, I was responsible for motion design. Therefore, that will be the focus for the remainder of this section.
The main components of the motion system consist of a platform, three wheels, a wheel frame, two motors, and two contact switches. Two of the wheels were connected to a motor and attached at the front end of the platform. These wheels were only allowed to move simultaneously in either a forward or reverse direction. The third wheel was hooked up to the wheel frame and free to rotate approximately 45 degrees in either direction. Figure 1.1 shows an illustration of how the wheel frame works. The wheel frame and third wheel were then attached to the platform completing the basic assembly. The second motor was put near the end of the platform and is used solely to pull the logic board through a series of contact points. The final step involved setting up a canopy containing the contact switches across the platform where the switches were free to strike the logic board.
The fact that the wheel base can be controlled separately from the forward and reverse motor yielded some advantages that we thought were rather interesting. One of them is that the robot is able to make a turn while driving in reverse, instead of just forward. Another feature is that the car is capable of turning and then translating in one command. Even though this was one of the original parameters which was eliminated because it complicated matters, we felt that it couldn't hurt to have it anyway. The theory of the motion design was finished. The only obstacles that remained were the testing and fine-tuning of Longwood, a machine that was destined for success.
The goal of the MOBOT Project was to design and build a programmable robot. The robot had to complete a series of four movements in four given directions over a distance of at least 6 inches. Power and weight restrictions were applied to ensure the safety of the students and, more importantly, the teacher. As the goals of the project were made clearer, our group began discussing possible ideas for the design. There were some disagreements about whether we should take the electromechanical route or the purely electrical one. And after some deep thought, we all agreed that the mechanical way would be the simplest to build and the most merciful on our pocketbooks. Even though we were coming up with some good ideas, each design seemed to contain some major problems. One of the reoccurring problems dealt with the synchronization of the driver motor and the steering system. Finally the team came up with a design that allowed the drive and steering controls to be independent of one another, but still allowing each one to be linked in time. This design has now become what is known as LONGWOOD.
The Longwood is divided into two main parts: 1)motion system and 2)logic board. As the engineer, I was responsible for motion design. Therefore, that will be the focus for the remainder of this section.
The main components of the motion system consist of a platform, three wheels, a wheel frame, two motors, and two contact switches. Two of the wheels were connected to a motor and attached at the front end of the platform. These wheels were only allowed to move simultaneously in either a forward or reverse direction. The third wheel was hooked up to the wheel frame and free to rotate approximately 45 degrees in either direction. Figure 1.1 shows an illustration of how the wheel frame works. The wheel frame and third wheel were then attached to the platform completing the basic assembly. The second motor was put near the end of the platform and is used solely to pull the logic board through a series of contact points. The final step involved setting up a canopy containing the contact switches across the platform where the switches were free to strike the logic board.
The fact that the wheel base can be controlled separately from the forward and reverse motor yielded some advantages that we thought were rather interesting. One of them is that the robot is able to make a turn while driving in reverse, instead of just forward. Another feature is that the car is capable of turning and then translating in one command. Even though this was one of the original parameters which was eliminated because it complicated matters, we felt that it couldn't hurt to have it anyway. The theory of the motion design was finished. The only obstacles that remained were the testing and fine-tuning of Longwood, a machine that was destined for success.
Life of Georg Simon Ohm
Georg Simon Ohm
At the time Georg Simon Ohm was born not much was known about electricity, he was out to change this. Georg grew up in Bavaria which is why most information about Georg is in German. There is even a College named after him: Georg-Simon-Ohm Fachhochschule Nuernberg. To much dismay not a whole lot has been written about him. Usually you will find a paragraph of the summary of his life. I hope to change this flaw in the history books by telling you as much as I could find on his life.
When Georg was growing up his dad, owner of a prosperous locksmith business, wanted young Georg to study mathematics before joining the family business. Georg attended a Gymnasium, like a college, in Erlangen, Bavaria (now Germany) . During his time at this Gymnasium a professor noticed how he excelled in math. This professor's name was Karl Christian von Langsdorf, Georg owes this man much credit from his recommendations to others.
After he graduated he took a job teaching mathematics at Erlangen University in 1805. He spent the next years looking for a better teaching position. He found what he was looking for in 1817 when a job was made available to him at Cologne Gymnasium. He now looked to research electrical current. In 1827 he published Die galvanishce Kette, mathematisch bearbeit (The Galvanic Circuit, Mathematically Treated). This was a mathematical description of conduction in circuits modeled after Fourier's study of heat conduction. This is also known as Ohm's Law.
Ohm's Law, which is Georg's greatest accomplishment, started as an experiment. The experiment's purpose was to find the relationship between current and the length of the wire carrying it. Ohm's results proved that as the wire increased the current decreased.
Ohm came up with a formula to state these findings. It is V=IR, where as V=Voltage, I=Current, and R=Resistance. Ohm came up with a statement for this: current is equal to the tension (potential difference) divided by the overall resistance. Units of resistance, or ohms, are named after Georg Ohm. The inverse of resistance is conductance and it's units are mho, or Ohm's name spelled backwards. This is expressed as G=I/R or I=GV. That is conductance is equal to Current divided by resistance.
Georg's work was under constant ridicule because it was experiment only and was irrelevant to a true understanding of nature. So he felt compelled to resign his job at Cologne. He continued his research after this time. After six years he got another teaching job at Nuremberg. He was recognized by the Royal Society of London for his work in the 1840s. He was awarded the Copley Medal in 1841 and Charles Wheatstone attributed his work to the findings of Ohm. He became a foreign member of the Royal Society in 1842. In 1849 Ohm was given his dream job when he became a professor at Munich. He died 5 years later after accomplishing his dream.
Georg Simon Ohm is not a famous man by any means, but his research on electricity is still in use today. Electricity is very important, so this makes Ohm an important man even if he is in the shadows. Although Georg was the talk of the town in physics, he has somewhat faded into an unknown. I hope I have enlightened you with a few words of wisdom about Georg Simon Ohm.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
1. G. Baker, Georg Simon Ohm, Short Wave Magazine 52 (1953), 41
Books:
1. E. Deuerlein, Georg Simon Ohm, 1789-1854 (Erlangen, 1939)
2. C. Jungnickel and R. McCormmach, Intellectual Mastery of Nature, (Chicago, 1986)
3. H.S. Suttman Co., INC. , The Illustrated Science and Invention Encyclopedia, (New York, 1974)
Internet Sources:
1. Http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/ Ohm.html
2. Http://spider.ace.sait.ab.ca/~blanchar/www/ohm/ohm.htm
At the time Georg Simon Ohm was born not much was known about electricity, he was out to change this. Georg grew up in Bavaria which is why most information about Georg is in German. There is even a College named after him: Georg-Simon-Ohm Fachhochschule Nuernberg. To much dismay not a whole lot has been written about him. Usually you will find a paragraph of the summary of his life. I hope to change this flaw in the history books by telling you as much as I could find on his life.
When Georg was growing up his dad, owner of a prosperous locksmith business, wanted young Georg to study mathematics before joining the family business. Georg attended a Gymnasium, like a college, in Erlangen, Bavaria (now Germany) . During his time at this Gymnasium a professor noticed how he excelled in math. This professor's name was Karl Christian von Langsdorf, Georg owes this man much credit from his recommendations to others.
After he graduated he took a job teaching mathematics at Erlangen University in 1805. He spent the next years looking for a better teaching position. He found what he was looking for in 1817 when a job was made available to him at Cologne Gymnasium. He now looked to research electrical current. In 1827 he published Die galvanishce Kette, mathematisch bearbeit (The Galvanic Circuit, Mathematically Treated). This was a mathematical description of conduction in circuits modeled after Fourier's study of heat conduction. This is also known as Ohm's Law.
Ohm's Law, which is Georg's greatest accomplishment, started as an experiment. The experiment's purpose was to find the relationship between current and the length of the wire carrying it. Ohm's results proved that as the wire increased the current decreased.
Ohm came up with a formula to state these findings. It is V=IR, where as V=Voltage, I=Current, and R=Resistance. Ohm came up with a statement for this: current is equal to the tension (potential difference) divided by the overall resistance. Units of resistance, or ohms, are named after Georg Ohm. The inverse of resistance is conductance and it's units are mho, or Ohm's name spelled backwards. This is expressed as G=I/R or I=GV. That is conductance is equal to Current divided by resistance.
Georg's work was under constant ridicule because it was experiment only and was irrelevant to a true understanding of nature. So he felt compelled to resign his job at Cologne. He continued his research after this time. After six years he got another teaching job at Nuremberg. He was recognized by the Royal Society of London for his work in the 1840s. He was awarded the Copley Medal in 1841 and Charles Wheatstone attributed his work to the findings of Ohm. He became a foreign member of the Royal Society in 1842. In 1849 Ohm was given his dream job when he became a professor at Munich. He died 5 years later after accomplishing his dream.
Georg Simon Ohm is not a famous man by any means, but his research on electricity is still in use today. Electricity is very important, so this makes Ohm an important man even if he is in the shadows. Although Georg was the talk of the town in physics, he has somewhat faded into an unknown. I hope I have enlightened you with a few words of wisdom about Georg Simon Ohm.
Bibliography
Periodicals:
1. G. Baker, Georg Simon Ohm, Short Wave Magazine 52 (1953), 41
Books:
1. E. Deuerlein, Georg Simon Ohm, 1789-1854 (Erlangen, 1939)
2. C. Jungnickel and R. McCormmach, Intellectual Mastery of Nature, (Chicago, 1986)
3. H.S. Suttman Co., INC. , The Illustrated Science and Invention Encyclopedia, (New York, 1974)
Internet Sources:
1. Http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/ Ohm.html
2. Http://spider.ace.sait.ab.ca/~blanchar/www/ohm/ohm.htm
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